The document discusses the grammar of logical meaning through analyzing clauses and clause complexes. It explains that clauses are the basic grammatical units of both written and spoken language. Clauses can be classified as major or minor, independent or dependent, elliptical or non-elliptical, embedded or non-embedded. Clause complexes involve two or more clauses that are logically connected through expansion or projection relations, and taxic relations of parataxis or hypotaxis. Expansion includes elaboration, extension, and enhancement, while projection involves locution and idea.

1. The Grammar of
Logical Meaning
Clause and Clause Complex

2. In traditional approach, we discuss
as written language.
However, people do not speak in
Traditional (written)
• Sentence
• Phrase
• Word
Functional Grammar
(written and spoken)
• Clause
• Group
• Word
Instead, we speak in
MESSAGES which are realized
grammatically in CLAUSE and
CLAUSE COMPLEX.

3. The highest rank which is the largest
grammatical unit
Two or more clause connected
logically

4. Clause Classification
Clause
Minor
Major
Independent
Non-
Elliptical
Elliptical
Dependent
Embedded
Non-
Embedded

5. Major and Minor Clauses
Major Clause
• has predicator.
Minor Clause
• has no predicator.
• In English, minor clauses
include: address
(vocative), greeting, and
exclamation.
e.g. “Morrie could barely breathe. He stood
next to his father, frozen with fear, hoping
the boss wouldn’t scream at him, too.”
Words in bold are predicators which are the
indicators of the major clauses in English.

6. Independent
Clauses
• The clauses that can
stand alone
Dependent Clauses
• The clauses that cannot
stand alone. They must
EITHER be initiated by:
Dependent and Independent
Clauses
A
(Indicator of the dependent clause):
 subordinating relator, e.g. since, if,
although, because
 a relator WH- word, e.g. who, which,
when
 Relative word that
OR
the verbal group functioning as the
predicator of the dependent clause
must be:
 Perfective (infinitive) to  to +
verb
 Imperfective  verb + ing

7. Independent Clauses:
Non-Elliptical and Elliptical
Elliptical clauses are
clauses that are missing or
leaving one or some parts.
Listeners/Readers can
understand the clauses
they read/talk abut since
these bits are recoverable
from accompanying text.

8. Dependent Clauses:
Non-Embedded and Embedded
Embedded clause is a part of the
structure of a group, which itself is the
constituent of the clause. Meanwhile
non-embedded clause is a dependent
clause which functions in its own right.
Non-Embedded
• The prisoner, who hid in the
thicket, escaped.
Embedded
• The prisoner who hid in the thicket
escaped.
The non-embedded clause above
functions to add more information
about the event that ‘said the
prisoner hid in the thicket’.
The embedded clause above serves to
define which prisoner it was who hid in
the thicket to distinguish this prisoner
from some other.
Functions as
qualifier of
nominal
group the
prisoner

9. Clause
Clause
Clause
Complex
Clause Complex
A clause complex is comprised of
two or more clauses LOGICALLY
CONNECTED, or put another way,
it is a sequence of processes
which are logically connected.
There are TWO basic relations connecting
clauses in complex clause. They are :
 Degree of Interdependency or TAXIS
 Logico-Semantic relation

10. Types of Relationship in Clause
Complex
Clause Complex
Taxis
Parataxis
(numbers: 1,2)
Hypotaxis (Greek
letters: α, β)
Logico-Semantic
Relation
Expansion
Elaboration (=)
Extension (+)
Enhancement
(x)
Projection
Locution (‘‘)
Idea (‘)

11. Logico-Semantic Relation:
Expansion
Expansion links clauses by providing additional
information. It involves three types of relationship:
Expansion
Elaboration
• one clause expands
another by elaborating
on it (i.e., e.g., viz.)
Extension
• one clause extends the
meaning of another by
adding something new
(and, but, or)
Enhancement
• One clause expands
another by qualifying it
with some circumstantial
features (after, if,
because)

12. Greater Details
This building looks amazing.
= It was built with delicate architecture.
Restatement
This building looks amazing.
= It totally stands out.
Exemplification
This building has eight storeys.
= It consists of two basements, ground floor, five additional floors, and rooftop.
Comment
The architect designed the building impressively.
=The architect is very talented.
This ‘equals’ sign is
used to indicate
elaboration relation

13. This clause relation
is marked by ‘is
added to’ sign
• + and my sister majors in Literature.
I major in Linguistics
• +but I have no aptitude for writing one.
I enjoy reading various literary
works
• + or I borrow some poetry books from my
sister.
Sometimes I go to see classical
play
and
but
or

14. It involves circumstantial
relationship, including temporal, conditional, causal,
cohesive, spatial, or manner.
The clause
connection is
marked through ‘is
multiplied by’ sign
Tempo
ral
• She went straight to her office
• x after she gave lecture in the class.
Conditi
onal
• He won’t make many friends
• x if he doesn’t want to mingle in with others.
Cause
• They made the lecturer angry
• x because they didn’t pay attention to the lecture.
Spatial
• I recommended to my some attractive places in Yogyakarta
• x where I once visited on my vacation.

15. Logico-Semantic Relation:
Projection
Locution
projecting locution, a
construction of wording
occurs in verbal process
indicated by double quotes (‘’)
Idea
projecting idea, a
construction of meaning
occurs in mental process
indicated by single quote (‘)
Projection links clauses by having one process projected
through another by either quoting or reporting.
Verbal Process:
Kak Ros said
“ Upin Ipin movie will be released in
December.
Kak Ros said
‘ that Upin Ipin movie will be released in
December.
Mental Process:
Kak Ros thought
“ Upin Ipin movie will be released in
December.
Kak Ros thought
‘ that Upin Ipin movie would be released in
December.

16. Interdependency or Taxis
Parataxis
Coordination relationship, one
clause follows on from another
marked by number 1, 2, 3, 4 etc
Clauses referred to being initiating
or continuing.
Hypotaxis
Subordination relationship, one
clause dependent on another
marked by Greek letters α, β, γ, δ,
etc
Clauses referred to being dominant
or dependent.
Alpha marks the dominant clause,
but alpha doesn’t necessarily come
first in the clause complex.
Taxis refers to the dependence of clauses in
a clause complex. It is divided into two
types: Parataxis and Hypotaxis.

17. The system of TAXIS and LOGICO-SEMANTIC
TYPE are simultaneous and independently
variable. Thus, in analyzing complex clause, we
will find relationships of taxis (either parataxis or
hypotaxis) and logico-semantic relation (either
expansion or projection.

18.  In relationships of expansion both the taxis and logic-
semantic relationship can be identified through the
marker which joins the clause. The markers can be seen
below.
Elaborating Extending Enhancing
Paratactic that is to say
or (rather)
in other words
for example
for instance
In fact, like
and, but
not only
but also
except
or, yet
so, then
for, thus
or else
still
otherwise
Hypotactic which whereas
while
instead
besides
rather than
as, while
when, where
because, if
even though
despite

19. Elaboration
Paratactic Hypotactic
1 Mona didn’t budge;
=2 she fought back.
α Mona didn’t budge,
=β which startled the robbers.
Paratactic Hypotactic
1 Mulan fled for her life;
+2 and Mona was left alone.
α Mulan fled for her life,
+β whereas Mona was left alone.
Paratactic Hypotactic
1 Mulan couldn’t fight the
robbers;
x2 so she fled.
α Mulan fled,
xβ because she couldn’t fight the
robbers.
Extension
Enhancement

20. Locution
Paratactic Hypotactic
1 Mulan said:
“2 “I’ll find help.”
α Mulan said
‘β that she would find help.
Paratactic Hypotactic
1 Mulan thought to herself:
“2 “I’ll find help.”
α Mulan thought
‘β that she would find help.
α Mulan decided
‘β to find help.
Hypotactic
α I wanted
‘β to find help.
Idea:
1. Proposition
2. Proposal

21. Let’s analyze the Complex!
Note!
 List each clause vertically
down the page, lettering
each clause complex (A,B,C)
and numbering each clause
in the clause complex (i,ii,iii)
 Display analysis on left-hand
side of text
 Begin a new layer whenever
there is a change in taxis or
logico-semantic relation.

22. • Example:
Tsunamis are caused when the sea bottom suddenly
moves, during an underwater earthquake or volcano, for
example, and, the water above the moving earth suddenly
displaced.
(A) (i) α Tsunamis are caused
(ii) xβ 1 when the sea bottom suddenly moves,
(iii) =2 1 during an underwater earthquake or volcano,
for example
(iv) +2 and, the water above the moving earth
suddenly displaced