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Teaching Speaking in Adult ESL
The document contrasts spoken and written language, highlighting the distinct features of interactive spoken English such as context dependence, dialogic nature, and reliance on informal conversational skills. It emphasizes the importance of various skills including listening comprehension, conversation management, and sociocultural knowledge for effective communication. The document suggests instructional strategies that focus on awareness-raising, appropriation, and autonomy to address gaps in students' spoken language abilities.
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Teaching Speaking in Adult ESL
- 1. •Spoken vs. Written Language •Skills Involved •Features of interactive spoken English •Instructional suggestions Joanne Pettis 2007
- 2. Context dependent Context independent Dialogic Monologic Unrehearsed & Edited & Redrafted spontaneous Relies more on nouns Relies more on and noun groups verbs’ Lexically dense Grammatically intricate
- 3. Very informal, spontaneous & jointly constructed ◦ (social chit-chat) Very formal, predictable & planned ◦ (debates, panel discussions, some meetings)
- 4. Listening comprehensionskills Conversation management skills Linguistic knowledge Genre & Discourse knowledge Intelligible Pronunciation Background knowledge of content Sociocultural & pragmatic knowledge Compensatory strategies
- 5. Discourse markers Delexical verbs Adverbs General words, Back-channels Vague language & Deixis hedges Ellipsis Modality Fixed expressions Heads & fronting Tags
- 6. Particularly important in terms of the “fluid management of interactive talk” ◦ Signal intention ◦ Hold the conversation turn ◦ Mark boundaries in topic
- 7. OK then; anyway Personalize & soften interactive style Oh, by the way Often used to initiate a turn Indicates a topic change Well Mark the beginning/closing of a segment of talk May be used to return to a But topic You know, I mean
- 8. As much a generational marker as a discourse marker, used to: ◦ Signal a comment on a previous topic ◦ Signal an example ◦ Signal amplification on a topic
- 9. Word or phrases that directly relate an utterance to a time, place or person…. ◦ This/that, these/those, here/there, now/then ◦ Pronouns, such as I, you he, she they ◦ Phrases, such as you people, we teachers, over there, out west, down (back) East, up North, down South
- 10. General words -indefinite reference Thing, stuff Hedges - To avoid being to direct; To express an opinion about someone or something Kind of, basically, Vague language - To avoid sounding too authoritative or assertive; In informal contexts to soften conveyed information Something, around, or so; adding “y” or “ish” suffix to words greeny-blue, six-ish
- 11. Awareness-raising Appropriation Autonomy
- 12. Involve 3 processes ◦ Paying attention, noticing, understanding Focus on the type (genre) of spoken language & the context variables Identify and address gaps in their knowledge ◦ what to say in a certain situation, how to respond, etc.
- 13. Spoken andwritten language are different Interactive spoken language has distinct features Instruction that emphasizes awareness-raising is essential in addition to appropriation and autonomy activities.
Editor's Notes
- #2 2007 ALT Branch Fall Conference The title of this session is: “ Well, you know , it’s not the same as written English, eh?” Right away, hearing the title said aloud, you no doubt recognize features that are definitely not common in written language but are pretty common in certain types of spoken language, in particular interactive, spoken English and that’s the type of English use I’d like to focus on today – INTERACTIVE, SPOKEN ENGLISH. In this session, I’d like to build on the introduction Anne Burns gave us at the 2006 TESL Canada Conference. In particular, I want to address these questions: What are some of the key features that differentiate interactive, spoken English from written English? What are some of the skills Ss need in order to participate in interactive spoken English? What are some of the emerging developments in instruction that help Ts address these issues? In the workshops that follow, you’ll have the opportunity to learn about some practical teaching activities that reflect the ideas presented in this plenary; activities that have been tried out by the presenters with their own students. In this way, we hope that you will go away from today’s session with, not only a repertoire of useful teaching activities and strategies, but also a set of guiding principles to help you make instructional decisions.
- #3 2007 ALT Branch Fall Conference We’ve all had students who have complained when we teach them contractions or reductions They say that they only want to learn GOOD English – as if contractions and reductions or slang are somehow sub par or inferior. The fact is spoken English and written English ARE DIFFERENT! Spoken Interactive language : Context dependent: Gen. used to communicate with people in the same time &/or place Relies on shared knowledge between interactants and often refers to shared context Gen. accompanies action Written : Used to communicate across time and distance Must recreate for readers the context Generally reflects action Spoken : Is dialogic - Usually involves 2 or more people Written : Is monologic - Usually written by 1 person removed from audience Spoken : Is unrehearsed & spontaneous Interactants build spoken unrehearsed texts spontaneously within social & linguistic parameters Written : Can be edited/redrafted a number of times Spoken : Relies more on verbs to carry meaning because it Records the world as happenings and Written : Relies more on nouns & noun groups to carry meaning because it Records the world as thing Spoken : Contains more or grammatical words – pronouns, conjunctions, etc. Develops through intricate networks of clauses rather than complete sentences because it is jointly constructed and relies more heavily on verbs Written : Contains more lexical or content words because meaning is carried by nouns and noun groups Relies on the process of nominalization – where things that are not nouns are turned into nouns. Ss need to appreciate that spoken and written language are different and in fact, Ts need to include some activities that help Ss see the difference and understand the difference. The Resource Making Decisions , put out by Grass Roots Press is a writing resource; however, it has some activities in its early pages on differences between spoken and written language that Ts might find helpful.
- #4 2007 ALT Branch Fall Conference Even within spoken English there is a range from very informal, interactive language to very formal monologic language, such as lectures, presentations, sermons, speeches, demonstrations But I mentioned, today, I want to focus on interactive spoken language, in particular rather than monologic language. I especially want to focus on interactive language that is most unlike written language.
- #5 2007 ALT Branch Fall Conference In some ways, speaking can be viewed as the easiest skill to use because you can use body language, demonstration, repetition and various other strategies to make yourself understood. On the other hand it can be considered the most difficult skill to acquire because it involves both command of listening comprehension and speech production sub-skills in unpredictable, unplanned situations. Interactive spoken language involves both listening and speaking because the messages are jointly constructed. These skills need to be developed or taught in tandem. However, as an aside, we know the skills can develop unequally and that’s why we assess them separately. For instructional purposes, however, we usually teach them in tandem. So Ss need to develop their listening skills and their conversation management skills to participate in interactive language task. By conversation management skills I mean: how to open a conversation, how to signal pre-closings and how to close conversations. Ss also need skills in turn-taking, turn-holding, turn-retrieving. (Frances Molaro was telling me the other day she used to teach tag endings, like the Canadian “eh” as a signal that someone might be coming to the end of their turn and a new speaker could take over. So she used it as a turn-taking signal…) Ss also need skill in topic shifting/changing, topic avoidance, etc. Of course they need intelligible pronunciation. This is a kicker! Ss can acquire all the strategies and grammar and vocabulary you could want, but if they cannot speak intelligibly, so they can be understood by someone other than their EAL teacher, they may be extremely limited in their ability to acquire and keep a job or be promoted. I CANNOT STRESS ENOUGH THE IMPORTANCE OF PRONUNCIATION!! ESPECIALLY AT STAGE 1 OR WHEN THE Ss ARE NEW TO SPOKEN ENGLISH. PLEASE TEACHERS YOU NEED TO ADDRESS PRONUNCIATION EVERYDAY AND NOT JUST IN INFORMAL CORRECTION OF THE PRONUNCIATION OF OCCASIONAL WORDS although that’s important. TEACHERS NEED TO INCLUDE FORMAL PRONUNICATION INSTRUCTION. LET’S SEE 15-20 MINUTES EVERYDAY IN A FULLTIME CLASSES. In addition to pronunciation, we know that Ss also need the knowledge of and ability to use grammar, vocabulary, genre and discourse knowledge, etc. In interactive language, the speakers also need to have background knowledge of the content, sociocultural and pragmatic knowledge about the SOCIAL expectations and conventions we use to make language appropriate for the context. And of course Ss need strategies to deal with communication breakdown. I’d like now to look at some VERY distinct features of INTERACTIVE spoken language that Ss must become familiar with.
- #6 2007 ALT Branch Fall Conference These are some typical features of spoken language. SOME are not found in written language. Teachers need to make sure that when they teach speaking skills they address these features as well as the typical vocabulary, grammar, etc. related to the task at hand. In your handout, I have included a table of all these features, so I’m not going to talk about them all this morning. However, I would like to look at several particular features: Discourse Markers Deixis (DIKE SIS) Vague language
- #7 2007 ALT Branch Fall Conference Discourse markers are words or phrases that are particularly important in terms of the “fluid management of interactive talk.” They are key to turn-taking. Thornbury compares them to indicator lights on cars. In interactive speaking, discourse markers typically : Signal intention Hold the conversation turn Mark boundaries in topic We saw several examples of discourse markers in the title of this plenary: for example, Well … and you know … are common discourse markers in spoken English and of course, there are others.
- #8 2007 ALT Branch Fall Conference Here are a few common discourse markers in spoken English. Take a couple of See if you can match the discourse markers in the left column with their roles in spoken English in the right column. Work with a couple of folks around you Look at the discourse markers on the left and match them to their roles in the right hand column. Try saying the words aloud and see how the intonation changes Ok, then – marks beginning/closing of a segment (the use of then has no temporal meaning) BTW – indicates a topic change Well – initiating a turn (can also be used as softener to mark the onset of a contrast) But – may be used to return to a topic or typically to signal a contrast (BTW on the other hand signals a tangent or shift in topic) You know, I mean – personalize and soften; also used to check comprehension and maintain listener’s attention These are SO prevalent in spoken English teachers need to address them. Certainly at the very least, Ss need to be able to recognize them when they hear them and not get confused about what the markers are doing. More importantly though is to help Ss learn to use discourse markers to manage turn-taking.
- #9 2007 ALT Branch Fall Conference I want to mention the discourse marker: LIKE Very Gen X+ don’t you think? Signals a comment on the previous topic, Signals an example Signals amplification With your partners can you come up with an example for each use of like ? Like make up a sentence with like in it?
- #10 2007 ALT Branch Fall Conference Deixis is maybe a new term for folks. Deixis is a linguistic term used to refer to words or phrases used to directly relate an utterance to a time, place or person…. Deictic words point forward and backwards both in spoken text and outside it to the context or situation. Remember, earlier we said that interactive spoken language is context dependent – that is. it’s generally used to communicate with people in the same time and place, so deictic words may often be accompanied by gestures or other references. Some examples of deictic words: These/those; this/that – can locate an utterance in relation to space, but also to the speaker’s closeness or involvement with something This guy I know …. (suggests a social distance) How is that cold? ...(suggests a camaraderie or closeness) Now/then – relate to the current moment of the utterance Pronouns like I/We/you/they/he/she/they etc - relate to who is speaking and who is present, who is included or excluded, etc. Phrases like over there or down East locates one place in relation to another. So, Deictic (Dike-tic) words and phrases are used to orient people interpersonally, spatially and temporally. Being able to use them effectively can make language sound more natural and effective. At Stage 2 using to use some of these phrases effectively seem to me to be quite important. Even at Stage 1, we can see that certain contexts of language, such as language used to do things like packing, cooking, moving things involve a lot of deictics because the things being dealt with are normally visible to all speakers. Ss can run into problems however, if they over use deictic terms when they are not supported by context. For example, If you make a lot of use of pronouns without either the actual people there to refer to – often with gestures, you need to plug in referent nouns at times to keep the conversation coherent. I’m sure many of you are already thinking of ways to teach these words and phrases in these particular ways. CLB Listening & Speaking Resource by Petit and Unwin – available from New Readers Book Store So…how many of you are going to remember this term Deixis (DIKE – SIS) and what it means? If you look in your handouts, you’ll find a little rhyme that might help you.
- #11 2007 ALT Branch Fall Conference The 3 rd group of features I’d like to look at are General words, hedges and vague language . General words, hedges and vague language are really critical at the Stage 2 CLB levels especially to help learners soften their language and I hope every Stage 2 teachers is addressing them or will address them. General Words are indefinite substitutions for an actual item or for a cluster of items. NSs use general words a lot, sometimes too much, but if Ss can use them, they will sound more natural and native-like. General words are also helpful substitutions when Ss don’t know the actual noun they want. Thing, stuff – general words used when it isn’t necessary or desirable to go into details. Thing & stuff are 2 of the most common words in English for this reason. Hedges (a kind of vague language) soften language. They are so important to Ss who often get into trouble because they seem too direct and blunt. Kind of – a hedge for when people don’t want to comment directly. Words like sort of , and sometimes I mean, can also be hedges. (The other day, I asked someone, “Do you think this is too corny?” And the person replied, “Kind of.” Basically , is also a hedge. There is an extensive range of adverbs that we use to mitigate the force of what’s being said – probably, possibly, perhaps, normally, slightly . Modals are also commonly used as hedges. Vague language gives Ss a way out, a way to avoid committing to something or, sounding too authoritative or confrontational. Without vague language, students who assume in supervisory positions for example can sound too bossy. Something is frequently used to soften language (Do you have a pen or something?). Around and or so are used allow speakers not to commit themselves completely to the truth or value of a proposition . (THE BASIC MEANING A SENTENCE EXPRESSES). Adding “ y ” or “ ish ” to adjectives makes something deliberately and expressively vague. (He’s fifty-ish…) Frequently L2 speakers run into difficulty in the workplace because they sound too direct, too assertive or authoritative. Stage 2 teachers probably notice it in discussions when Ss sound too abrupt or almost rude when expressing disagreement or opinions. WORK WITH A PARTNER AND COME UP WITH A SENTENCE TO ILLUSTRATE SOME OF THESE WORDS & PHRASES
- #12 2007 ALT Branch Fall Conference Typically the range of teaching activities teachers use should fall into these categories. Awareness raising Appropriation Autonomy I’m going to step over Awareness raising activities for a moment to talk about Appropriation and Autonomy Activities. For years we’ve talked about skill building and skill using activities and I think appropriation and autonomy activities most reflect those characteristics with maybe a shift in emphasis. Appropriation activities generally refer to enabling or skill-building activities. But there’s an increased emphasis on the provision of context and meaningfulness. Ss need drills and repetition and other activities that focus on developing accuracy, etc. however, it is important to embed this practice in contextualized, meaningful language. You know this. One author Scott Thornbury pointed out the difference by saying, it is more about practised control than controlled practice, moving from “other” or teacher-regulated production to self-regulated production. Moving from the provision of significant scaffolding or support to minimal scaffolding. Autonomy activities are those activities are most like skill using activities, that is activities in side the classroom ad outside it that simulate real-world activities or what Thornbury describes as “ real operating conditions . This includes simulations in the classroom but also he emphasizes taking the language outside the classroom to apply it in real situations that Ss have prepared for. You’ll have the opportunity to hear some ideas for both these instructional phases later in the day. I want now to return to Awareness-raising activities, because I think these activities may be somewhat new for many.
- #13 2007 ALT Branch Fall Conference If Ss aren’t consciously aware, paying attention, and noticing, understanding and learning doesn’t take place. It’s a simple as that. When Ss are paying attention they are on alert – Interested, curious and involved in noticing particular features of the language use. When we just give Ss the language they need, they don’t need to pay attention or engage their analytical skills. They don’t need to think too much. Learning is less effective than if they are involved in discovering the language needed and generating the rules of use. In particular, Awareness-raising activities help Ss to pay attention and think about the context they will be speaking in, who they will be speaking with, what they want to do with the language and how they do that. Awareness-raising activities also help Ss notice selected language features, whether related to genre, discourse, grammar, vocabulary or sociocultural conventions, etc. and prime Ss for learning. I’m not sure how many teachers include these types of activities in their instruction. I encourage you to do so. Rather than just giving Ss the language to use or telling them what features are important, Awareness raising activities, especially noticing activities , involve the Ss in a process of discovery and shift the responsibility from solely the teacher to the learner. It’s the difference between giving a small child a puzzle piece and saying “this goes there,” and saying “what goes in this spot? Or “where do you think this goes?” Noticing as I said is more than paying attention – it is the conscious registering of something. Awareness raising then also help Ss hypothesize and understand the general rule, pattern or principle and this understanding is more likely if Ss encounter several instances of the item. In fact a researcher named Hawkins found that Ss can improve significantly their ability to process and produce speech acts when they have been exposed to and analyzed many authentic instances of the speech act occurring in different context. So Ts need to present the target language in several similar situations for examination. In Awareness raising lesson phase, Ts at Stage 1 might begin with a picture, Ts Stage 2, might begin with a video. Depending on level, Ts might ask Qs, such as: Where is this? Who is here? Do you think they know each other? Do they have equal status? How do you think they feel? What do you think their mood is? What are they doing? What do you think each person is saying? Is it the same in your country? Ss also might be asked to attempt to carry out the language task, using the language and strategies available to them from prior learning. The teacher might bring in a recording of NSs carrying out the task so Ss can compare what they said to what the NSs say. Or, the T might have Ss do noticing activities to focus their attention first on general comprehension and context variables, then on specific features. For example Ss might be asked to listen to a recording of authentic language and notice what the interactants say when they meet or how they make the language polite. They might be asked to count how many times the speakers say “ you know .” Later, the T might provide a transcript of the text with gaps and have Ss listen and fill them in or note differences between the transcript and the recording. They might be asked to circle all the general or vague language in the transcript or link pronouns with the words they refer to. At this stage obviously listening material is critical. A point here. Everyone agrees that it is difficult for beginners to follow fast-spoken authentic language. Burns points out, however, that it is essential to expose Ss to authentic language. Ts can limit the amount of language Ss listen to, or they can semi-script the language before recording. In this case, they might record a couple of willing colleagues or family members carrying out a language task that includes some specific features rather than having them read a prepared dialogue. An alternative to recordings is using what Thornbury calls “ live language, ” where a speaker comes into class, talks and is recorded for future instructional use.
- #14 2007 ALT Branch Fall Conference In conclusion: Spoken and written language are different and when we teach speaking we need to focus on the features of spoken language, not written language Interactive spoken language has distinct features that must be addressed through instruction Instruction that emphasizes awareness-raising is essential in addition to appropriation and autonomy activities. It helps to engage students and prime them self-regulated language use. This concludes this morning’s plenary. After your coffee break you can move directly to your first workshop session. I think you’ll enjoy the sessions and I’m sure you’ll go away with a lot of new activities to try.