The document discusses atmosphere control and air treatment systems on submarines. It focuses on the need for oxygen supply and carbon dioxide removal to maintain a safe and breathable atmosphere for crew onboard. Key systems discussed include electrochemical oxygen generators that produce oxygen through electrolysis of water, lithium hydroxide absorbers that remove carbon dioxide, and emergency air systems to handle accidents. The goal is to control the atmosphere to support optimal crew performance, similar to normal surface conditions, and allow submarines to stay underwater for extended periods of time.
Decantation and centrifugal separation are two methods to separate mixtures. Decantation uses gravity to separate mixtures based on differences in density, allowing lighter components to be poured off the top. Centrifugal separation uses centrifugal force by rapidly spinning mixtures, forcing denser components to migrate outward and separating components. Both methods exploit differences in properties like density, but centrifugal separation provides a more accurate separation compared to decantation. For purification, decantation and centrifugal separation are often used together to separate solids from liquids.
Crude oil processing involves desalting to remove salts and suspended solids. Desalting mixes crude oil with 3-10% water and uses electrical fields to separate the salt water from the oil. Single stage desalting removes 90-95% of salts while two stages removes nearly all salts. Crude oil is also preheated before desalting. Atmospheric and vacuum distillation units further process the crude oil by fractional distillation at different pressures and temperatures to separate it into useful fractions like gasoline and diesel.
This document discusses different membrane separation techniques including reverse osmosis, dialysis, and electrodialysis. Reverse osmosis uses pressure to force purified water through a semi-permeable membrane, leaving dissolved ions behind. Dialysis relies on diffusion across a semi-permeable membrane to remove low molecular weight solutes from fluids. Electrodialysis transports ions through ion exchange membranes under an applied electric potential to purify solutions.
The document discusses the history and principles of vapor absorption refrigeration systems. Some key points:
- Vapor absorption was first discovered in 1824 by Michael Faraday and the first machine was built in 1860. It uses a refrigerant (ammonia) that is absorbed into a solvent (water) for compression.
- Unlike vapor compression, it uses heat rather than mechanical energy to change the refrigerant's state. This allows it to be powered by waste heat or solar energy.
- The first domestic refrigerator using this technology was invented in 1925 and used ammonia, hydrogen, and water in a "three-fluid" system to eliminate the need for a pump.
Membrane separation techniques such as reverse osmosis, dialysis, and electrodialysis were presented. Reverse osmosis uses pressure to force water through a semi-permeable membrane to separate pure water from solutions like seawater. Dialysis relies on diffusion to separate low molecular weight solutes through a porous membrane. Electrodialysis uses ion exchange membranes and an electric current to transport ions between solutions. These membrane processes separate particles and molecules through mechanisms of sieving and diffusion.
Glass is made by melting sand, soda, lime, and other ingredients at high temperatures. It can be categorized based on its composition and manufacturing process. The most common type is soda-lime glass, consisting mainly of silica, sodium oxide, and calcium oxide. Other types include fused silica, lead, and borosilicate glasses. Glass products are formed through processes like float glass, fiberglass production, and tubing drawing then undergo further processing for applications.
Distillation is a process that separates mixtures into individual components based on differences in their boiling points. It works by heating the mixture to vaporize components with lower boiling points, which are then cooled and condensed.
The key principles are that vapor pressure increases with temperature, allowing the lower boiling components to vaporize first. According to Raoult's law, the vapor produced will be enriched in the more volatile components compared to the liquid mixture.
There are several types of distillation including simple, fractional, vacuum, and azeotropic distillation. Simple distillation is used when components have very different boiling points while fractional distillation with multiple stages is needed for similar boiling points. Vacuum distillation lowers the
This lab report summarizes an experiment to determine the cloud point and pour point of coconut oil. The cloud point is the temperature at which the oil becomes cloudy due to wax separation as it cools, while the pour point is the temperature at which the oil stops flowing. The apparatus used includes the oil sample, thermometer, beaker, cooling bath, cork, and testing jar. The procedure cools the oil sample in the testing jar in a cooling bath while observing for cloudiness and flow. The results found were a cloud point of 17°C and pour point of 13°C for coconut oil.
Decantation and centrifugal separation are two methods to separate mixtures. Decantation uses gravity to separate mixtures based on differences in density, allowing lighter components to be poured off the top. Centrifugal separation uses centrifugal force by rapidly spinning mixtures, forcing denser components to migrate outward and separating components. Both methods exploit differences in properties like density, but centrifugal separation provides a more accurate separation compared to decantation. For purification, decantation and centrifugal separation are often used together to separate solids from liquids.
Crude oil processing involves desalting to remove salts and suspended solids. Desalting mixes crude oil with 3-10% water and uses electrical fields to separate the salt water from the oil. Single stage desalting removes 90-95% of salts while two stages removes nearly all salts. Crude oil is also preheated before desalting. Atmospheric and vacuum distillation units further process the crude oil by fractional distillation at different pressures and temperatures to separate it into useful fractions like gasoline and diesel.
This document discusses different membrane separation techniques including reverse osmosis, dialysis, and electrodialysis. Reverse osmosis uses pressure to force purified water through a semi-permeable membrane, leaving dissolved ions behind. Dialysis relies on diffusion across a semi-permeable membrane to remove low molecular weight solutes from fluids. Electrodialysis transports ions through ion exchange membranes under an applied electric potential to purify solutions.
The document discusses the history and principles of vapor absorption refrigeration systems. Some key points:
- Vapor absorption was first discovered in 1824 by Michael Faraday and the first machine was built in 1860. It uses a refrigerant (ammonia) that is absorbed into a solvent (water) for compression.
- Unlike vapor compression, it uses heat rather than mechanical energy to change the refrigerant's state. This allows it to be powered by waste heat or solar energy.
- The first domestic refrigerator using this technology was invented in 1925 and used ammonia, hydrogen, and water in a "three-fluid" system to eliminate the need for a pump.
Membrane separation techniques such as reverse osmosis, dialysis, and electrodialysis were presented. Reverse osmosis uses pressure to force water through a semi-permeable membrane to separate pure water from solutions like seawater. Dialysis relies on diffusion to separate low molecular weight solutes through a porous membrane. Electrodialysis uses ion exchange membranes and an electric current to transport ions between solutions. These membrane processes separate particles and molecules through mechanisms of sieving and diffusion.
Glass is made by melting sand, soda, lime, and other ingredients at high temperatures. It can be categorized based on its composition and manufacturing process. The most common type is soda-lime glass, consisting mainly of silica, sodium oxide, and calcium oxide. Other types include fused silica, lead, and borosilicate glasses. Glass products are formed through processes like float glass, fiberglass production, and tubing drawing then undergo further processing for applications.
Distillation is a process that separates mixtures into individual components based on differences in their boiling points. It works by heating the mixture to vaporize components with lower boiling points, which are then cooled and condensed.
The key principles are that vapor pressure increases with temperature, allowing the lower boiling components to vaporize first. According to Raoult's law, the vapor produced will be enriched in the more volatile components compared to the liquid mixture.
There are several types of distillation including simple, fractional, vacuum, and azeotropic distillation. Simple distillation is used when components have very different boiling points while fractional distillation with multiple stages is needed for similar boiling points. Vacuum distillation lowers the
This lab report summarizes an experiment to determine the cloud point and pour point of coconut oil. The cloud point is the temperature at which the oil becomes cloudy due to wax separation as it cools, while the pour point is the temperature at which the oil stops flowing. The apparatus used includes the oil sample, thermometer, beaker, cooling bath, cork, and testing jar. The procedure cools the oil sample in the testing jar in a cooling bath while observing for cloudiness and flow. The results found were a cloud point of 17°C and pour point of 13°C for coconut oil.
The document discusses various separation processes. It begins by defining separation as dividing material into component parts and describing separation techniques as purification methods. It then classifies separation processes into three main categories: mechanical separations based on size/density differences, diffusional separations based on molecular movement, and membrane separations using semipermeable membranes. Specific separation processes are also outlined, including centrifugation, filtration, distillation, chromatography, and novel techniques like supercritical fluid extraction and ion exchange chromatography. The document provides details on the mechanisms and applications of several key separation techniques.
This document outlines the procedures and results from an experiment on gas absorption using an absorption column. The experiment examined the air pressure drop across the column as air flow rate was increased for different fixed water flow rates. Pressure drop was recorded and plotted against air flow rate. The experimental flooding points where compared to theoretical calculations, with errors ranging from 11.1% to 20%. The results showed that pressure drop increased with air flow rate as expected, identifying the flooding points where liquid could no longer flow down the column.
This document discusses the optical and thermal properties of glass. It defines key optical properties such as refractive index, dispersion, temperature coefficient of refractive index, and stress-optical coefficient. It also discusses important thermal properties of glass including the transformation temperature, annealing point, softening point, thermal conductivity, and specific heat. The document provides definitions and measurement methods for these various properties that are important for characterizing and applying different types of glass.
Catalytic Reforming Process is one of the most important processes in the petroleum and petrochemical industries which produce high octane number gasoline.
Hydrodynamic cavitation is the rapid formation and collapse of vapor bubbles within a liquid caused by variations in pressure due to the presence of devices that constrict liquid flow, such as venturis or orifices. Cavitation occurs when the static pressure drops below the vapor pressure of the liquid. During cavitation, high temperatures and pressures are generated within bubbles that drive various chemical and physical effects upon collapse. Hydrodynamic cavitation has applications in waste water treatment, microbial cell disruption, chemical reactions, food processing, and synthesis of nanoparticles. It provides an energy efficient alternative to other techniques like ultrasound or high pressure homogenization.
This document discusses several applications of nanofiltration membranes for water treatment and separation processes. It describes using nanofiltration membranes to separate amoxicillin from pharmaceutical wastewater based on differences in molecular weight. It also discusses nanofiltration applications in the dairy industry for processes like partial demineralization of whey, lactose reduction, and detergent recovery from cleaning solutions. Additional applications discussed include removing cyanobacterial metabolites from water, concentrating copper in acid rinse water from mining operations, and treating textile wastewater.
Innovative projects in the refrigeration and Air Conditioning sector UNEP OzonAction
This document summarizes presentations from a regional workshop on low-GWP and energy efficient HCFC replacement technologies in the refrigeration and air conditioning sector. It provides examples of projects from GTZ Proklima in Europe and Asia that demonstrate alternative refrigerant options to HCFCs. Case studies described include a Gree air conditioning unit in China that uses propane instead of HFC-410A, and Johnson Controls chillers that use ammonia or hydrocarbons in Europe with lower energy use and charges than previous HFC systems. The document outlines the objectives, innovations, conclusions and energy savings of these demonstration projects of low-charge ammonia and hydrocarbon refrigerant systems.
Standard Test for Smoke Point for Kerosene and Aviation Turbine fuel, ASTM 13...Student
Standard Test for Smoke Point for Kerosene and Aviation Turbine fuel, ASTM 1322-97, IP 57/95
The smoke point is the maximum flame height in millimeters at which kerosene will burn without smoking, tested under standard conditions, this test method provides an indication of the relative smoke producing properties of kerosene and aviation turbine fuels in a diffusion flame. The smoke point is related to the hydrocarbon type composition of such fuels. Generally the more aromatic the fuel the smokier the flame. A high smoke point indicates a fuel of low smoke producing tendency.
Prepared By Yasir Al-Beatiy
Cryogenic grinding is a process that uses liquid nitrogen to cool materials before grinding them into smaller particles. It addresses problems with conventional grinding like heat generation and oxidation. The cryogenic grinding system consists of a precooling unit that uses a screw conveyor and liquid nitrogen to lower the material's temperature. This is followed by the grinding unit that impacts and attrites the embrittled material into a fine powder. Benefits include finer particle sizes, less heat, and preventing material degradation during grinding. Applications include grinding metals, plastics, explosives, and spices where maintaining material properties is important.
REVIEW ON EXTRACTION AND ISOLATION OF CASHEW NUT SHELL LIQUIDijiert bestjournal
India is the largest producer and processor of cashews (Anacardic occidental L) . Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) is a by-product from cashew nut processing. CNSL is a dark brown viscous liquid present inside a soft honey comb structure of the cashew nut shell. It contains phenolic compounds,mainly cardanol. Cardanol is a monohydroxyl phenol with a long carbon chain in the metaposition. It has the potential as a substitute for phenol in resin phenolic-base chemical products. The present review discusses various application of CNSL as well as the applications of constituents of CNSL. Various methods of extraction of CNSL are available in the literature. This review highlights various methods of extraction of CNSL and isolation of major constituents. The quantitative and qualitative analysis of CNSL is also pr esented in this review. Scope for future work is also discussed.
This document describes the process of electrodialysis, which uses an electrical current to transport ions through ion exchange membranes to separate salts from water. Key components include a power source, electrodes, and ion exchange membranes arranged alternately. The process results in one compartment becoming depleted of ions and adjacent compartments becoming enriched. It is commonly used for desalination of water and process solutions, with advantages of low energy use, high conversion ratio, and ability to concentrate brine. Applications include treatment of brackish water, boiler feedwater, wastewater, and industrial streams.
This document discusses heat exchangers, including their types, advantages, disadvantages, and applications. It describes the main types of heat exchangers as shell and tube, double pipe, plate type, and finned tube. Shell and tube heat exchangers are the most widely used due to their lower cost compared to plate type and ability to handle higher pressures than double pipe. Plate type heat exchangers offer higher efficiency but higher initial cost. Heat exchangers are commonly used in chemical, petrochemical, food, and other industrial processes to transfer heat between fluids.
This presentation provides an overview of pervaporation. Pervaporation involves the partial vaporization of a liquid mixture through a nonporous membrane, driven by a concentration gradient. The membrane retains one component more strongly than the other, allowing separation. Common applications include dehydrating ethanol/water mixtures and removing organic solvents from wastewater. The presentation discusses the basic process, membrane types including organic and inorganic options, design of pervaporation modules, and mathematical models. Typical industrial uses aim to concentrate flavors or break azeotropes in distillation.
The document discusses petroleum refining, cracking, and methods of producing synthetic petrol. It describes how crude oil is refined through separation, conversion, and treatment processes like distillation. Cracking breaks large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller, more useful molecules through thermal or catalytic cracking. Synthetic petrol can be produced via polymerization, Fischer-Tropsch synthesis from syngas, or Bergius process where coal is hydrogenated over a catalyst into liquid fuels.
The maximum flame height in millimeters at which kerosene will burn without smoking, tested under standard conditions; used as a measure of the burning cleanliness of jet fuel and kerosene.
1. The document describes an experiment to determine the smoke point of a kerosene sample. A smoke point lamp is used to slowly increase the height of a kerosene-soaked wick in the lamp until smoke is produced, at which point the flame height in mm is recorded as the smoke point.
2. The experiment aims to find the smoke point of the kerosene sample in order to determine its quality and ability to burn without smoke. A higher smoke point indicates less smoke-producing compounds in the fuel.
3. The smoke point test was repeated twice for the kerosene sample, resulting in values of 22.7 mm and 21 mm. Taking the average, the smoke point of
Armfield Gas Absorption Column ExperimentHadeer Khalid
The absorption of CO2 from air to water was studied in Gas absorption column built by Armfield company. Lab report and experiment was part of Separation Lab.
Ravi Chakervarti - Paper on Environmental control onboard SubmarinesRAVI CHAKERVARTI
This document discusses habitability issues and environmental control onboard submarines. It describes the closed ecological system of a submarine's internal atmosphere, which requires careful control of oxygen, carbon dioxide, temperature, humidity and purification to remove harmful gases. Key elements of atmosphere control include ventilation, air conditioning, and air purification systems to regulate gases, temperature, humidity and remove contaminants. Maintaining the delicate balance of the closed system grows more challenging with longer mission durations.
The document summarizes key details about India's first indigenous nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine, INS Arihant. It describes Arihant's origins in the 1970s, basic features like its 110m length and 6000 ton displacement. It also outlines Arihant's propulsion system, life support systems, missiles and weapons capabilities. Comparisons are made to other world-class submarines and strategic implications for regional security are discussed. The conclusion reflects on Arihant marking the start of India's submarine development journey.
The document discusses various separation processes. It begins by defining separation as dividing material into component parts and describing separation techniques as purification methods. It then classifies separation processes into three main categories: mechanical separations based on size/density differences, diffusional separations based on molecular movement, and membrane separations using semipermeable membranes. Specific separation processes are also outlined, including centrifugation, filtration, distillation, chromatography, and novel techniques like supercritical fluid extraction and ion exchange chromatography. The document provides details on the mechanisms and applications of several key separation techniques.
This document outlines the procedures and results from an experiment on gas absorption using an absorption column. The experiment examined the air pressure drop across the column as air flow rate was increased for different fixed water flow rates. Pressure drop was recorded and plotted against air flow rate. The experimental flooding points where compared to theoretical calculations, with errors ranging from 11.1% to 20%. The results showed that pressure drop increased with air flow rate as expected, identifying the flooding points where liquid could no longer flow down the column.
This document discusses the optical and thermal properties of glass. It defines key optical properties such as refractive index, dispersion, temperature coefficient of refractive index, and stress-optical coefficient. It also discusses important thermal properties of glass including the transformation temperature, annealing point, softening point, thermal conductivity, and specific heat. The document provides definitions and measurement methods for these various properties that are important for characterizing and applying different types of glass.
Catalytic Reforming Process is one of the most important processes in the petroleum and petrochemical industries which produce high octane number gasoline.
Hydrodynamic cavitation is the rapid formation and collapse of vapor bubbles within a liquid caused by variations in pressure due to the presence of devices that constrict liquid flow, such as venturis or orifices. Cavitation occurs when the static pressure drops below the vapor pressure of the liquid. During cavitation, high temperatures and pressures are generated within bubbles that drive various chemical and physical effects upon collapse. Hydrodynamic cavitation has applications in waste water treatment, microbial cell disruption, chemical reactions, food processing, and synthesis of nanoparticles. It provides an energy efficient alternative to other techniques like ultrasound or high pressure homogenization.
This document discusses several applications of nanofiltration membranes for water treatment and separation processes. It describes using nanofiltration membranes to separate amoxicillin from pharmaceutical wastewater based on differences in molecular weight. It also discusses nanofiltration applications in the dairy industry for processes like partial demineralization of whey, lactose reduction, and detergent recovery from cleaning solutions. Additional applications discussed include removing cyanobacterial metabolites from water, concentrating copper in acid rinse water from mining operations, and treating textile wastewater.
Innovative projects in the refrigeration and Air Conditioning sector UNEP OzonAction
This document summarizes presentations from a regional workshop on low-GWP and energy efficient HCFC replacement technologies in the refrigeration and air conditioning sector. It provides examples of projects from GTZ Proklima in Europe and Asia that demonstrate alternative refrigerant options to HCFCs. Case studies described include a Gree air conditioning unit in China that uses propane instead of HFC-410A, and Johnson Controls chillers that use ammonia or hydrocarbons in Europe with lower energy use and charges than previous HFC systems. The document outlines the objectives, innovations, conclusions and energy savings of these demonstration projects of low-charge ammonia and hydrocarbon refrigerant systems.
Standard Test for Smoke Point for Kerosene and Aviation Turbine fuel, ASTM 13...Student
Standard Test for Smoke Point for Kerosene and Aviation Turbine fuel, ASTM 1322-97, IP 57/95
The smoke point is the maximum flame height in millimeters at which kerosene will burn without smoking, tested under standard conditions, this test method provides an indication of the relative smoke producing properties of kerosene and aviation turbine fuels in a diffusion flame. The smoke point is related to the hydrocarbon type composition of such fuels. Generally the more aromatic the fuel the smokier the flame. A high smoke point indicates a fuel of low smoke producing tendency.
Prepared By Yasir Al-Beatiy
Cryogenic grinding is a process that uses liquid nitrogen to cool materials before grinding them into smaller particles. It addresses problems with conventional grinding like heat generation and oxidation. The cryogenic grinding system consists of a precooling unit that uses a screw conveyor and liquid nitrogen to lower the material's temperature. This is followed by the grinding unit that impacts and attrites the embrittled material into a fine powder. Benefits include finer particle sizes, less heat, and preventing material degradation during grinding. Applications include grinding metals, plastics, explosives, and spices where maintaining material properties is important.
REVIEW ON EXTRACTION AND ISOLATION OF CASHEW NUT SHELL LIQUIDijiert bestjournal
India is the largest producer and processor of cashews (Anacardic occidental L) . Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) is a by-product from cashew nut processing. CNSL is a dark brown viscous liquid present inside a soft honey comb structure of the cashew nut shell. It contains phenolic compounds,mainly cardanol. Cardanol is a monohydroxyl phenol with a long carbon chain in the metaposition. It has the potential as a substitute for phenol in resin phenolic-base chemical products. The present review discusses various application of CNSL as well as the applications of constituents of CNSL. Various methods of extraction of CNSL are available in the literature. This review highlights various methods of extraction of CNSL and isolation of major constituents. The quantitative and qualitative analysis of CNSL is also pr esented in this review. Scope for future work is also discussed.
This document describes the process of electrodialysis, which uses an electrical current to transport ions through ion exchange membranes to separate salts from water. Key components include a power source, electrodes, and ion exchange membranes arranged alternately. The process results in one compartment becoming depleted of ions and adjacent compartments becoming enriched. It is commonly used for desalination of water and process solutions, with advantages of low energy use, high conversion ratio, and ability to concentrate brine. Applications include treatment of brackish water, boiler feedwater, wastewater, and industrial streams.
This document discusses heat exchangers, including their types, advantages, disadvantages, and applications. It describes the main types of heat exchangers as shell and tube, double pipe, plate type, and finned tube. Shell and tube heat exchangers are the most widely used due to their lower cost compared to plate type and ability to handle higher pressures than double pipe. Plate type heat exchangers offer higher efficiency but higher initial cost. Heat exchangers are commonly used in chemical, petrochemical, food, and other industrial processes to transfer heat between fluids.
This presentation provides an overview of pervaporation. Pervaporation involves the partial vaporization of a liquid mixture through a nonporous membrane, driven by a concentration gradient. The membrane retains one component more strongly than the other, allowing separation. Common applications include dehydrating ethanol/water mixtures and removing organic solvents from wastewater. The presentation discusses the basic process, membrane types including organic and inorganic options, design of pervaporation modules, and mathematical models. Typical industrial uses aim to concentrate flavors or break azeotropes in distillation.
The document discusses petroleum refining, cracking, and methods of producing synthetic petrol. It describes how crude oil is refined through separation, conversion, and treatment processes like distillation. Cracking breaks large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller, more useful molecules through thermal or catalytic cracking. Synthetic petrol can be produced via polymerization, Fischer-Tropsch synthesis from syngas, or Bergius process where coal is hydrogenated over a catalyst into liquid fuels.
The maximum flame height in millimeters at which kerosene will burn without smoking, tested under standard conditions; used as a measure of the burning cleanliness of jet fuel and kerosene.
1. The document describes an experiment to determine the smoke point of a kerosene sample. A smoke point lamp is used to slowly increase the height of a kerosene-soaked wick in the lamp until smoke is produced, at which point the flame height in mm is recorded as the smoke point.
2. The experiment aims to find the smoke point of the kerosene sample in order to determine its quality and ability to burn without smoke. A higher smoke point indicates less smoke-producing compounds in the fuel.
3. The smoke point test was repeated twice for the kerosene sample, resulting in values of 22.7 mm and 21 mm. Taking the average, the smoke point of
Armfield Gas Absorption Column ExperimentHadeer Khalid
The absorption of CO2 from air to water was studied in Gas absorption column built by Armfield company. Lab report and experiment was part of Separation Lab.
Ravi Chakervarti - Paper on Environmental control onboard SubmarinesRAVI CHAKERVARTI
This document discusses habitability issues and environmental control onboard submarines. It describes the closed ecological system of a submarine's internal atmosphere, which requires careful control of oxygen, carbon dioxide, temperature, humidity and purification to remove harmful gases. Key elements of atmosphere control include ventilation, air conditioning, and air purification systems to regulate gases, temperature, humidity and remove contaminants. Maintaining the delicate balance of the closed system grows more challenging with longer mission durations.
The document summarizes key details about India's first indigenous nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine, INS Arihant. It describes Arihant's origins in the 1970s, basic features like its 110m length and 6000 ton displacement. It also outlines Arihant's propulsion system, life support systems, missiles and weapons capabilities. Comparisons are made to other world-class submarines and strategic implications for regional security are discussed. The conclusion reflects on Arihant marking the start of India's submarine development journey.
Uss Nebraska Submarine Embark November2008jim hopkins
1) A small delegation from BENS was invited to tour a US nuclear submarine at sea, which is a rare opportunity for civilians. They toured operational areas, ate with sailors, and witnessed life aboard while underway.
2) The tour included seeing the torpedo room, control rooms, missile silos, and periscope. They learned about the Ohio-class submarine's capabilities and the responsibilities and professionalism of the young crew.
3) It was an exciting, memorable experience to learn first-hand about life on one of the nation's most advanced strategic deterrent platforms and to meet the committed sailors who operate it.
Strategic Design Management (Evolution of Design in Skoda Auto)Kapil Rajput
Designing has huge importance in today’s scenario. Branding is important tool which decide success of any enterprise, if it is not done with proper care and planning. In a highly customized marketplace, differentiation - how one product stands out from a similar product or service allows customers to make a distinction between competing services. Different organizations will often choose to focus their offers on distinctive qualities of brand attributes
1. The document is the front matter of a book titled "Practical Engineering Failure Analysis" that lists 171 other titles in the Mechanical Engineering series published by Marcel Dekker, Inc.
2. The titles focus on various mechanical engineering topics such as design, materials, fluid mechanics, tribology, reliability, and maintenance.
3. The list ranges from titles published in the 1960s to the early 2000s and covers subjects such as gear design, finite element analysis, lubrication, heat transfer, machining, and more.
The tyre pressure monitoring system (TPMS) warns drivers when tyre pressure is low through a yellow indicator light. There are two main types of TPMS: indirect and direct. Indirect TPMS uses wheel speed sensors to detect differences in rotation that may indicate low pressure, while direct TPMS has sensors inside each tyre that directly measure and wirelessly transmit pressure readings. Both aim to prevent accidents that may occur from underinflated tyres, though direct TPMS is more accurate while indirect TPMS is less expensive. Proper tyre maintenance is still important, as TPMS is not a replacement for manual pressure checks.
This document discusses several new trends in automobile design, including:
1) Driverless cars using sensing technology to increase safety and reduce traffic congestion.
2) Technologies like power steering, anti-lock braking systems, and hydropneumatic suspension that help drivers control their vehicles.
3) Advanced driver assistance systems using sensors and automatic braking to detect hazards and potentially avoid collisions.
The document discusses the history and development of submarines from the early 17th century up to World War 1. It describes some of the first submarines like one built in 1620 by Cornelius van Drebbel and how submarines have changed significantly since then. During World War 1, technical developments greatly improved submarines that were used as weapons by Germany. Examples mentioned include the Deutschland class U-boats that could carry cargo and the U-155 combat submarine. Submarines were also used by other countries in World War 1 like the USS O-7 from the United States and the HMAS AE2 from Australia.
The document summarizes a Tyre Pressure Monitoring and Inflation System called the TPH hub. The TPH hub is a device that fits onto truck and trailer wheels to monitor and manage tyre pressure. It consists of a hub with two air gauges and air lines connected to the tyre valves to make inflating easy. The TPH system aims to improve safety, reduce costs from fuel and tyres, and lower greenhouse emissions by enabling accurate and constant monitoring of tyre pressure.
Submarines are large, crewed, autonomous vessels that operate underwater. While submarines are usually referred to as boats regardless of size due to naval tradition, the term submarine can also refer to smaller, remotely operated underwater vehicles or robots. Key characteristics of submarines include their ability to operate independently underwater through crewed operation or remote control, as well as being described as "under the sea" when used in terms like submarine cable.
The document discusses the history and types of artificial hearts. There are three main types: ventricular artificial heart, ventricular assist device, and total artificial heart. The total artificial heart, such as the AbioCor, consists of implanted components like the replacement heart and batteries, as well as external components like a battery bag. The artificial heart replaces the pumping function of the natural heart and requires a power source to operate. While artificial hearts can extend lives, there are still obstacles to widespread acceptance and use.
The document discusses the history and definition of industrial design. It traces the origins of industrial design back to the 18th century with the founding of a school to train draftsmen for the silk manufacturing industry. It evolved with the industrialization of consumer products in the early 20th century. The document defines industrial design as the application of art to improve the aesthetics and usability of mass-produced products for marketability. The role of industrial designers is to solve problems of form, usability, engineering and marketing through design.
Google announced its first fully functional driverless car ready for testing on public roads, marking a breakthrough in automotive technology. Automakers are also developing automated manual transmissions, vehicle-to-vehicle communication technologies, and advanced driver assistance systems using sensors and automatic braking to increase safety and prevent collisions. Meanwhile, new infotainment systems are allowing smartphone-like interfaces in vehicles, and materials like aluminum are making cars lighter and more fuel efficient.
The document provides information on the registration of industrial designs under the Designs Act, 2000 in India. It defines what constitutes a design and outlines the essential requirements for design registration, including that a design must be new, original and not previously published. It also lists designs that are not registrable. The document describes the classification of goods, duration of registration, and procedures for filing an application and seeking revocation of a registered design. It includes the forms, fees and grounds for cancelling a registered design.
The document discusses design strategy and its relationship to business strategy. It defines design strategy as deciding what to create with a long term perspective of 3-5 years, taking a systemic view. A design strategist works at the intersection of design, research insights, and business strategy, translating insights into solutions and connecting design efforts to business goals. The key is to scope opportunities, define consumer value, focus on generating real business value, and develop tactics to achieve strategies. Design thinking and strategic design management can be used to innovate and create superior customer experiences that drive business success.
This document provides an introduction to mechanical vibrations. It discusses fundamentals such as single and multi degree of freedom systems, free and forced vibrations, harmonic and random vibrations. Examples of vibratory systems include vehicles, rotating machinery, musical instruments. Excessive vibrations can cause issues like noise, fatigue failure. The Tacoma Narrows bridge collapse and Millennium bridge vibrations are discussed. Harmonic motion and its characteristics such as amplitude, period, frequency, and phase are also introduced.
This document summarizes trends in automobiles from the past to present and future. In the past, cars had 3-4 cylinder engines running on petrol or diesel with rack and pinion steering and hard brakes. Now, cars have more efficient supercharged or turbocharged engines running on various fuels, with power steering, advanced braking systems, and safety features. In the future, vehicles will run cleaner and faster, using technologies like hybrid power and hydrogen fuel cells to improve fuel efficiency and reduce emissions.
Submarines have existed since the late 16th century but became increasingly important weapons in World War I and II when German U-boats wreaked havoc on Allied ships. During this time, submarines evolved from hand-powered vessels to diesel-electric and eventually nuclear-powered ships. The first nuclear submarine, USS Nautilus, launched in 1954 and could stay submerged for long periods without needing to surface. Modern submarines use sonar and periscopes for navigation and targeting systems to fire torpedoes or missiles at enemy vessels from long distances. Life onboard is difficult, with cramped conditions and no sunlight for months during long deployments.
IRJET- Experimental Investigation on Water Desalination System based on Humid...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes an experimental investigation of a water desalination system based on the humidification-dehumidification (HDH) method. Key findings include:
1) The system uses a heat pump's condenser and evaporator to humidify and dehumidify air and produce fresh water.
2) Experiments tested different air flow rates and water spray conditions.
3) The system achieved a maximum fresh water production rate of 8.64 liters/hour at an air to water mass ratio of 0.13 and inlet cooling water temperature of 15°C.
The Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) on the International Space Station provides a habitable environment for crew members by managing atmospheric gases, humidity, temperature, air quality, and waste. It detects and responds to fires using smoke detectors and fire suppression. Closed-loop systems aim to reuse resources by recycling water and carbon dioxide. The Sabatier reactor reduces carbon dioxide to produce water and methane for oxygen production. Integration of interconnected ECLSS subsystems poses design challenges to minimize failure impacts and ensure redundant capabilities.
Plasma-chemical treatment of industrial wastewaters from brewery “Brasseries ...IJERA Editor
This document summarizes a study on treating industrial wastewater from a brewery in Cameroon using plasma-chemical treatment. The researchers collected wastewater samples from the central collection point of the brewery and analyzed them to determine pollution levels. They then exposed the samples to a gliding arc plasma discharge for periods of 3-60 minutes. Exposing the wastewater to 60 minutes of the plasma discharge reduced turbidity by 52.22% and absorbance by 50.19%, indicating degradation of colored compounds. After 60 minutes of treatment, levels of biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and total organic carbon in the wastewater were also reduced significantly, by 52.05%, 68.63%, and 69
Plasma-chemical treatment of industrial wastewaters from brewery “Brasseries ...IJERA Editor
This work focuses on the study of the chemical reactivity of an advanced oxidation process (AOP), called the
plasma technique, in order to prevent industrial effluent from pollution and better cope to several damage of
environment. The oxidizing and acidifying properties of an electric discharge of the gliding arc plasma and its
application to a target which is a real effluent (wastewater from Brasseries du Cameroun -Bafoussam plant)
fascinated this study. Samples were collected from the central collecting point (CCP) of the effluent. The
collected effluent samples were analyzed by volumetric and instrumental methods, and then exposed to the
gliding discharge during specific time periods of 3-60 min to exhibit the desired decontamination effects. At the
end of 60 min of exposure time to the discharge, 52.22% and 50.19% obtained respectively to abatement of
turbidity and rate of fall in absorbance. This reduction can be explained by the fact that the coloured compounds
were degraded and this degradation gave rise to the transparent appearance observed. After stopping the
discharge process, the abatement percentage of BOD5, COD and TOC, were obtained at the same time (60min)
with values of 52.05%, 68.63% and 69.37% respectively. These results reflect the considerable reduction of the
pollution load of the wastewaters collected from CCP of the brewery. These results showed that the
effectiveness of the gliding arc plasma depends not only on the physico-chemical parameters of the target, but
also on the exposure time and concluded that the non-thermal plasma process alone provides good reduction of
organic pollutants in wastewater. Moreover, the phenomenon of post- discharge, even though not studied in
details demonstrated that, after switching the discharge, the evolution of parameters such as pH, electrical
conductivity and TDS increase.
about aircraft oxygen system.
we cover all oxygen system and their equipment and component.
types of oxygen system.
and oxygen system cylinder valves and gauges.
A Novel Technique to Solve Mathematical Model of Pressure Swing Adsorption Sy...ijsrd.com
The mathematical modeling of a Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) system is discussed in detail for the Skarstrom cycle of two-bed process. The system is used to get pure oxygen product from the air with the use of zeolite 13X as an adsorbent. There are complex partial differential equations (pdes) which may not solve by analytical methods. There is no provision for solving it in any other software other than Matlab. All the equations are rearranged and written into dimensionless quantities, to make it easier. It is a novel technique of solving these complex PDEs. After that we have converted these PDEs into ODEs (Ordinary Differential Equations) by using OCFE (Orthogonal Collocation on Finite Elements) method. Now, these ODEs can be solved using different solvers like ode23, ode45, ode113, ode15s, ode23s, ode23t, ode23tb. The results obtained by this model will be compared to real industrial data.
short note on global warming
very helpful to get knowledge about climate change and global warming by surfing a bit of time. so lets read.
Thank you all friends..... if there is any suggestion m happy to get it
Survey of aeration management in shrimp farmingAlberto Nunes
This document discusses aerated pond management for shrimp farming. It provides information on:
- The importance of adequate dissolved oxygen for shrimp health and survival, and the factors that influence oxygen levels in ponds.
- Common types of mechanical aerators used in aquaculture ponds, including paddlewheel aerators, propeller-aspirator pumps, and diffused-air systems.
- Key findings from a survey of 140 shrimp farms on their aeration practices, including typical pond sizes, aeration rates, species cultured, and aerator positioning strategies.
- How mechanical aeration is used to supplement natural oxygen levels, improve water quality, and increase pond production capacities.
Human performance and limitation revisedabu afifah
The document discusses human physiology and performance as it relates to flying, covering topics like the respiratory system, effects of altitude on oxygen levels, symptoms of hypoxia, hyperventilation, and barotrauma. It provides an overview of how the body uses oxygen and the consequences of reduced ambient pressure at altitude, such as impaired judgement and loss of consciousness. The summary aims to provide pilots with knowledge on human factors and limitations for safe flying.
PERFUSION SYSTEM CONTROLLER STRATEGIES DURING AN ECMO SUPPORTijsc
This document describes a study on controlling perfusion systems during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) support. The researchers developed control strategies for maintaining partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide during ECMO. They created mathematical models of the gas blender, oxygenator, and blood gas analyzer components. A feedback linearization routine with time-delay compensation was used to control oxygen levels, while a PI controller controlled carbon dioxide levels. Simulation results showed the control strategies could track reference values and reject disturbances under varying conditions.
1. The document discusses the design of a cold water pipe for an OTEC power plant off the coast of the Philippines. It analyzes parameters from a theoretical 10MW OTEC system to determine requirements for the cold water pipe design.
2. Key parameters used include a seawater temperature difference of 21.5°C and mass flow rate. The document estimates that a pipe depth of 895.84m would achieve the required temperature difference off the Philippines coast.
3. Additional considerations for the pipe design include withstanding static/dynamic loads from waves and typhoons that occur in the Philippines location. The pipe structure, flow rate, diameter and pump requirements will be analyzed based on the estimated depth.
Carbon Sequestration Final Proposal (LINKEDIN)Alex Rojas
This report proposes a design to capture and store carbon dioxide emissions from Cornell University's power plant. The major components are a water spray cooler to lower the temperature of flue gas from the plant, a series of MEA columns to separate CO2 from the flue gas, and a pipeline to transport CO2 16.5 miles to a storage site near another power plant. The total estimated cost is $80 million to capture 65,000 lbs/hr of CO2, and the project would take 5.5 years to construct with storage lasting 125 years. Risks like pipeline failures and groundwater displacement are also analyzed.
The document summarizes the evaluation of a low-cost oxygen analyzer designed for use in hospitals in developing countries. Key points:
1) The analyzer uses a zinc-air battery that produces a voltage output linearly related to oxygen concentration to indicate concentration via colored LED lights, providing a simple, affordable way to ensure respiratory devices deliver optimal oxygen levels.
2) Prototypes accurately detected oxygen concentrations in testing, with an estimated manufacturing cost of $5 and proposed sale price of $15, much lower than existing analyzers costing $220.
3) Feedback from healthcare providers suggested modifications like a digital readout or alarm and integrating the device directly into oxygen machines to enhance usability and adoption.
EPA 608 certification and refrigerant handling procedureAmarSinghC1
This document provides information about EPA certification training for air conditioning and refrigeration technicians. It discusses the requirements under Section 608 of the Clean Air Act for technicians to be certified in proper refrigerant handling techniques. There are four categories of technician certification: Type I, Type II, Type III, and Universal. The test for certification contains multiple choice questions in four sections: Core, Type I, Type II, and Type III. Technicians must pass the Core section with a minimum score of 70% as well as the section for their relevant certification type.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) utilizes the temperature difference between warm tropical surface waters and cooler deep ocean waters to operate a heat engine and produce energy. It works similarly to a refrigerator in reverse by using warm surface water to vaporize a working fluid to drive a turbine that generates electricity. The working fluid is then condensed from a vapor to a liquid using cold water pumped up from deep in the ocean. OTEC is an efficient, clean process that could help reduce dependence on foreign oil imports. Its potential is estimated at 1013 Watts of continuous base load power generation globally.
The document analyzes the feasibility of an offshore air bag energy storage system using various working fluids and lake combinations. It finds that a system using oxygen at Lake Clark can generate 0.001% of US household energy needs with a single submerged balloon requiring 33,690 cubic meters, less than 0.01-0.025% of the lake's volume. The system would have an $18.5 million fixed cost and $3,786 daily running cost, recouping costs after around 6 years of daily 8 hour peak generation. Safety and environmental concerns are discussed, recommending against using hydrogen as an explosive working fluid. The analysis concludes the proposed system could store required energy but has a long cost recovery time.
NCAT Solar Powered Air Conditioning - Is it a Viable Option? Antonio ChanAntoniocwchan
This document summarizes a paper that examines the viability of solar powered air conditioning systems using absorption refrigeration. It describes the principles of absorption refrigeration, which uses a thermal compressor driven by heat rather than electricity. The document outlines a demonstration solar air conditioning system at the University of Wollongong, which uses solar collectors to power a lithium bromide absorption chiller. It also discusses the potential environmental benefits of replacing conventional air conditioning systems, which produce greenhouse gases, with solar powered absorption systems.
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Similar to Submarines Atmosphere Control and Air Treatment (20)
1. Submarines’ Atmosphere
Control and Air Treatment
Mohammed Dayraki
104357965
Underwater Intervention Systems
06-88-590-38/92-590-64 F15
Instructor:
Dr. Graham Reader
Leading Teaching Assistants:
Marko Jeftic
Kelvin Xie
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering
University of Windsor
401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4
2. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
2
Abstract
This project looks at Submarines’ Atmosphere Control and Air Treatment. Its goal is to
focus on the systems used in underwater vehicles to supply oxygen, remove carbon
dioxide, and to purify the atmosphere in the vehicle. It also includes emergency air
systems in case of accidents. The project gives a general view about the need of oxygen
for a human and the statistics of oxygen level in a human and in seawater. One the 2
types of equations used in the paper shows how the studies where done and the other
type shows how every system work. The best climate a crewman should be in so there’s
no psychological or physical effects is highlighted in the paper and a general view about
the USS Pennsylvania Submarine is used. As a conclusion, food resupply is the only thing
preventing a submarine from staying forever underwater.
3. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
3
List of Contents
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………..……….2
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………......……………4
AIM…………………………………………………………………………………….………….5
THE NEED OF OXYGEN……………………………………………………………...……….6
OXYGEN BLOOD LEVELS…………………………………………………………….………6
CONCENTRATION OF OXYGEN IN SEAWATER…………………………….……………6
DETERMINATION OF HENRY COEFFICIENT……………………………………..………7
CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS IN THE AIR……………………………………………………9
CLIMATE OF THE ATMOSPHERE ………………………………………..…………………9
USS PENNSYLVANIA SUBMARINE…………………………………………………………9
ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT SYSTEMS…………………...……10
OXYGEN SUPPLY SYSTEMS……………………………………………………….………10
CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL………………………………………………………………12
AIR PURIFICATION………………………………………………………………...…………13
EMERGENCY AIR………………………………………………………………….…………14
HOW LONG CAN A SUBMARINE STAY UNDERWATER? …………………….………15
CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………………15
APPENDIX A…………………………………………………………………….…..…………16
APPENDIX B………………………………………………………………………...…………17
LIST OF REFERNCES…………………………………………………….….………………18
LIST OF DEFINITIONS, SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION………………………………19
4. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
4
Introduction
Submarines’ Atmosphere Control and Air Treatment goes deep into a submarine’s air
control systems which include electrochemical oxygen generators, solid polymer oxygen
generators, oxygen candle furnace, LiOH absorbers, 𝐶𝑂2 scrubbers, 𝐶𝑂 − 𝐻2 burners,
activated carbon, emergency air breathing systems, oxygen breathing apparatus, and
Scott air packs. This paper explains how a submarine can stay underwater for 20 years
theoretically and 90 days in reality. The report reviews studies in human’s oxygen need,
seawater oxygen level, and chemical reactions and combines them so that submarines’
climate will be similar to the normal climate on land.
5. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
5
Aim
The purpose of the project is to highlight the systems used in a submarine to supply 𝑂2
to the crew and remove the 𝐶𝑂2 from the air inside.
6. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
6
The Need of Oxygen:
A human’s body uses many ways to extract energy from the surroundings so it can
survive. A major way is food which is is used as raw materials to make and heal body
cells. Another way is oxygen where our body use it to enrich all the organs a human
has. Upon inhaling, our lungs are filled up with air and alveoli absorb the oxygen into
our bloodstream. Hemoglobin then picks the oxygen to any organ in the body.
Cytochrome C then takes the oxygen molecules, mix them with water and, harvests the
released energy. The cell after that uses the energy for everyday function [1].
Oxygen Blood Levels:
The body of a human needs a very specific oxygen level in the blood. The normal
oxygen saturation in humans are considered 95-100 percent. Mayo clinic [2] defines
that hypoxemia is a result of oxygen level below 90 percent. If oxygen blood level is
under 80 percent, some organs will start malfunctioning including the brain and the
heart and continued low oxygen levels may lead to failure in respiratory or cardiac
systems.
Concentration of Oxygen in Seawater:
To calculate the standard atmospheric concentrations (USAC) in seawater, the equation
of henry coefficient as a function of temperature and salinity is used at a total pressure
of 1 atmosphere.
7. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
7
Determination of the Henry Coefficient:
In system of standard composition saturated with water vapor at total pressure P,
Henry’s Law is:
𝑓𝑜 = 𝑘 𝑜,𝑠
𝑛 𝑜,𝑑
𝑛 𝑤+ 𝑛 𝑠 + 𝑛 𝑜,𝑑+𝑛 𝑟,𝑑
(1)
where 𝑓𝑜(atm) and 𝑘 𝑜,𝑠(atm) are the vapor phase fugacity and the Henry coefficient for
oxygen, and 𝑛 𝑜,𝑑 , 𝑛 𝑤, 𝑛 𝑠, and 𝑛 𝑟,𝑑 are the numbers of moles of dissolved oxygen, pure
water, sea salt, and the number of moles of all other gases especially nitrogen dissolved
in the volume V.
The concentration, by mass, of dissolved oxygen in 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑘𝑔−1
is:
𝐶 𝑜
𝑝
≡
𝑛 𝑜,𝑑
𝑝 𝑠 𝑉𝑠
(2)
where 𝐶 𝑜
𝑝
is the standard atmospheric concentration of dissolved oxygen and 𝑛 𝑜,𝑑 , 𝑝𝑠 ,
and 𝑉𝑠 are the number of moles of dissolved oxygen, pressure of the system, and the
volume of it relatively.
t
( 𝑪𝒐
)
S
P
(atm*)
𝒌 𝒐,𝟎
(𝒂𝒕𝒎)
𝒌 𝒐,𝒔
(𝒂𝒕𝒎)
%dev of
𝒌 𝒐,𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒇𝒊𝒕
0.231 20.172 0.7754 25427 29332 0.054
0.228 31.634 0.7769 25425 31793 0.032
0.218 48.667 0.7842 25418 35806 -0.071
5.010 20.204 0.7950 28863 33097 0.069
5.023 31.703 0.7987 28873 35762 0.031
10.017 20.209 0.8131 32536 37095 0.091
10.029 31.639 0.8219 32545 49830 -0.186
8. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
8
15.009 20.098 0.8408 36221 40977 -0.077
15.009 20.459 0.8399 36221 41155 0.134
15.011 31.750 0.8468 36222 44082 0.026
15.008 48.514 0.8546 36220 48917 0.085
25.038 20.089 0.9104 43488 48758 -0.056
25.033 31.894 0.9171 43484 52139 -0.07
29.993 31.894 0.9402 46922 55957 0.035
35.092 20.228 0.9710 50288 56054 0.016
35.081 31.856 0.9749 50287 59633 -0.026
35.006 49.478 0.9733 50239 65518 0.026
45.007 31.912 1.0464 56258 66167 0.075
Table.1: The variation of the Henry Coefficient 𝒌 𝒐,𝟎 for oxygen depending on the
variation of temperature, Salinity, and Pressure
18 samples were taken with variable temperatures, salinity, and pressure as shown in
table.1 to experience the difference of Oxygen concentration in the seawater. In the
experiment, “the salinity sample was taken after the vapor phase and liquid phase
samples had been isolated. The seawater used in these measurements was taken from
Buzzards Bay, off Massachusetts, filtered, and stored in the dark. The pH was
determined with a Corning model 10 meter and was constant within 8.2 ± 0.1” [3]. The
results for 𝑘 𝑜,𝑠 from 18 experiments on seawater samples with salinities up to 50 and at
temperatures between 0 and 45 𝐶𝑜
are in the table.
9. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
9
Carbon Dioxide Levels in the Air:
“The air we breathe contains about about 0.03% of carbon dioxide (equivalent to a
partial pressure of about 30Pa) (Haux, 1981)” [4]. It will be hard to uphold such level in
an underwater vehicle. Once the CO2 reaches 4%, the atmosphere in the vehicle will be
lethal to humans. As a result, air treatment systems should maintain the carbon dioxide
level so the crew will stay have good mental and physical performance. For such
performance, a maximum partial pressure for carbon dioxide should be 1500Pa or 1.5%
CO2.
Climate of the Atmosphere:
The climate of a the vehicle is very important for which it define the physical and the
psychological stresses of the crew. In normal atmospheres, the temperature should be
between 18 and 22 𝐶𝑜
. Humidity should stay between 50% and 65% for best
performance. The problem is that heat is generated by all the process equipment so air
conditioning systems should be applied in the submarine.
USS Pennsylvania Submarine:
“You can’t see her, she can dive over 250 meters and stay down for 6 months. You
can’t hear her; she can run for 20 years without refueling. She is the most lethal weapon
ever designed.” [5] The USS Pennsylvania is an Ohio Class Submarine. It’s controlled
by a captain on deck and 165 men. The petrol that this submarine undergoes is about
72 days where the submarine stays underwater hiding. Once the hatch is closed, the
crew are sealed inside the Pennsylvania for the time of their mission. To stay alive,
10. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
10
every man needs oxygen and food. To produce oxygen, the USS submarine uses
Electrolysis in a very big scale using Oxygen Generators type H.P Serial no. 2139.
Atmosphere Control and Air Treatment Systems:
Nowadays, all Navy submarines are equipped with oxygen supply systems to maintain
proper atmospheric conditions and to remove contaminants. Controlling the source of
the materials is the most effective way of reducing and eliminating toxic contaminant.
Oxygen Supply Systems:
By using electrolysis oxygen generators (EDGs), stored oxygen, or oxygen candle
furnaces, oxygen may be refilled in an underwater vehicle. Nuclear submarines in
general are equipped with EOG systems but carry other systems as back up. One
specialty about EOG is that it can supply oxygen forever while other are limited by
storage capacity.
-Electrochemical Oxygen Generator:
Through electrolysis of water, oxygen is produced. By passing direct current through a
KOH solution, the water is electrolyzed to 𝐻2 and 𝑂2. Sixteen electrolytic cells at about
1000 amps are required to produce 120 SCFH of 𝑂2 which is sufficient for 120 men in
the submarine at a pressure up to 3000 psig. After that, gases are removed from all the
cells and 𝑂2 is distributed while 𝐻2 is discharged.
-Solid Polymer Oxygen Generator:
These type of generators are advanced technology oxygen generator where they
provide safe and reliable oxygen production. By using Solid Polymer Electrolyte (SPE)
11. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
11
cell, the oxygen generating Plant (OGP) produces breathing oxygen through electrolysis
which requires no free acids or caustic liquids. The pros of OGP are:
- It eliminates caustic electrolyte (KOH) and asbestos which is used as an
insulator.
- It’s controlled by a Microprocessor and requires only 15 minutes to shutdown and
restart to full operation.
- It can be operated at low pressure that can be 500-600 psi once oxygen banks
are charged.
- It has reduced inventory of combustible gases such as hydrogen
- It has a maximum output of 𝑂2 which is 225 SCFH. This will permits providing the
entire crew with oxygen using only one OGP
- Produces pure oxygen products without any 𝐻2 contamination
-Oxygen Candle Furnace:
The chlorate candle is a mixture of sodium chlorate, iron, a small amount of barium
peroxide, and a fibrous binding material. Burning the “Candle” is the basic process
where decomposition of the chlorate is applied:
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙𝑂3(𝑠) + 𝐹𝑒( 𝑠) → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑠) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐹𝑒( 𝑥) 𝑂(𝑦)(𝑠) (3)
Iron is combined with some oxygen and produces heat to support the reaction. To
remove unwanted chlorine products, barium peroxide is added:
𝐵𝑎𝑂2( 𝑥) + 𝐶𝑙2( 𝑔) → 𝐵𝑎𝐶𝑙2( 𝑠) + 𝑂2( 𝑔) (4)
2𝐵𝑎𝑂2(𝑥) + 4𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙2( 𝑔) → 2 𝐵𝑎𝐶𝑙2(𝑠) + 3𝑂2(𝑔) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) (5)
Each candle burns about 400 F for 45- 60 minutes, and yields 115 of 𝑂2 at 0.5 psig. By
filtration, smoke and salt are also produced.
12. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
12
Carbon Dioxide Removal:
CO2 is removed from the submarine by regenerative or non regenerative classes
depending on if the absorbent can be recycled at sea.
-𝐿𝑖𝑂𝐻 Absorbers:
It’s one of the non regenerative means to remove Carbon Dioxide from the gas torrent
that will pass through containers holding the 𝐿𝑖𝑂𝐻. Each 31.5 lb. container can absorb
29 lbs. of CO2 theoretically where it operates below 2% at 1 atm. total pressure and
requires no power even if it is sued with a fan when possible.
2𝐿𝑖𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶𝑂2 → 𝐿𝑖2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 (6)
-𝐶𝑂2 Scrubbers:
𝐶𝑂2 scrubbers are regenerative systems that use aqueous solutions of 25 – 30 wt. % (4-
5 M) monoethanolamine (MEA), NH2CH2CH2OH. Lewis acid-base reaction is the
process:
𝐻 − 𝑂 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝑁𝐻2 + 𝑂 = 𝑂 → 𝐻 − 𝑂 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝑁𝐻 − 𝐶𝑂 − 𝑂𝐻 (7)
Equation (7) will be stopped by heat or by low pressure atmosphere. Air treated should
enter the exchange tower at 80°F and 75% relative humidity CO2 (RH). It’s driven
through woven stainless steel which the MEA solution is flowing. At this phase, 70 to
90% of the Carbon Dioxide is removed. After that, the air is filtered to entrap droplets of
the MEA solution and then it’s returned to the submarine at about 75°F and 100%.
Stainless steel screens are used to recycle the MEA solution. The material is passed
through a column packed with glass rings and is heated to drive off the carbon dioxide
13. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
13
under pressure. When the solution is clean, it’s returned to the absorption cycle and the
CO2 is cooled and thrown overboard.
Carry-over of MEA and ammonia are problems in this systems. They are created when
the MEA slowly breaks down during the stripping phase to the submarine’s atmosphere
with the cleaned air. The decomposition of MEA is also catalyzed by the presence of
metal ions so chelating agents are added to limit this degradation. Materials escapes
into the submarine even after filtering.
Air Purification:
𝐶𝑂 − 𝐻2 Burner:
Burners are used to oxidize CO, H2, and hydrocarbons into to CO2 and H2O. It’s done
by drawing preheated air through CuO/MnO2 catalyst bed at about 600° F. When these
gases cool down, they are passed through a layer of Li2CO3 so acidic gases like HCI
will be eliminated. The last stage is done when air is passed through activated charcoal,
a simple absorber. Charcoal can be used forever and it does not need additional fuel
once it has reached operating temperature.
Activated Carbon:
To prepare charcoal, you can use any carbonaceous material and it can be activated by
the use of controlled heating. Through heating the capillaries, which can’t be
carbonized, are removed. When the charcoal is activated, increase in the vapor
adsorption is noticed. In submarines, the activated coconut shell charcoal is referred to
as activated carbon. Removing contaminant gases is a difficult phenomenon involving
14. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
14
capillary attraction and adsorption. Activated carbon is basically used for odor removal
in washroom, water closet, sand sanitary tanks.
Emergency Air:
Emergency Air Breathing (EAB) System:
The EAB system is used in case of fire with development of smoke, CO, CO2, or in
case of toxic component detection. This system provides full-face masks for each crew
member into the ship’s clean, high pressure air banks and hoses and pressure
reduction gear are part of the EAB system.
Oxygen Breathing Apparatus (OBA):
It’s a self-contained unit that is worn by each person and can generate to 60 minutes
supply of oxygen and removes exhaled carbon dioxide. It functions by decomposing
potassium superoxide KO2.
4𝐾𝑂2(𝑠) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) → 𝐾𝑂𝐻(𝑠) + 3𝑂2(𝑔) (8)
Equation (8) is initiated by water vapor exhaled by the wearer of the system. KOH
produced will interact by K2O and removes the CO2 from the air as Eq. (9) shows.
𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 2𝐾𝑂𝐻(𝑔) → 𝐾2 𝐶𝑂3(𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) (9)
Rebreathing is allowed in this system since it uses only a fraction of Oxygen.
SCBA – Scott Air Packs:
Scott Air Packs are the same system used for SCUBA but it’s created for the air
environment. It’s rechargeable, portable, and it’s used sometimes as a replacement for
OBAs.
15. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
15
How long can a Submarine stay Underwater?
Nuclear- powered submarines stay underwater for long periods which can last for
several months and that’s because of the oxygen generating and atmosphere control
systems for breathing and nuclear power for the submarine itself. Food and supplies are
the only reasons for the submarine to come back to the base. A normal submarine
carries 90-day supply of food.
Conclusion
As a conclusion, Submarines and especially nuclear- powered ones are stealthy
monsters that have the ability to stay underwater forever if it wasn’t for the crew inside
it. “You can’t see her, she can dive over 250 meters and stay down for 6 months. You
can’t hear her; she can run for 20 years without refueling. She is the most lethal weapon
ever designed.” [5] One of the solutions for this problem is treating crewmen like
astronauts so they’ll have more space for more food supplies.
16. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
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Appendix A: Normal Amount of Substances in the Atmosphere
Substance 8-h weighted
Average Limit
(ppm)
Ceiling
concentration
Ammonia 50
Carbon Dioxide 5000
Carbon Monoxide 50
Freon-12 1000
Hydrogen Chloride 5
Hydrogen Fluoride 3
Mercury 0.1 mg/𝑚3
Nitric Acid 25
Nitrogen Dioxide 5
Oil Mist 5 mg/𝑚3
Ozone 0.1
Phosgene 0.1
Stibene 0.1
17. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
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Appendix B: Line Drawing of an Ohio Class in its original SSBN configuration
1-Sonar Dome
2- Main Ballast Tanks
3- Computer Room
4-Integrated Radio Room
5-Sonar Room
6-Command and Control Center
7-Navigation Center
8-Missle Control Center
9-Engine Room
10-Reactor Compartment
11-Auxillairy Machinery Room no.1
12-Crew’s Berthing
13-Auxiliary Machinery Room no.2
14-Torpedo room
15-Wardroom
16-Chief Petty Quarters
17-Missle Compartment
18. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
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List of References
[1] Why do we need to breathe oxygen? (1996, January 31). Retrieved November 26,
2015, from http://www.pa.msu.edu/sciencet/ask_st/013196.html
[2] Hypoxemia (low blood oxygen). (n.d.). Retrieved November 26, 2015, from
http://www.mayoclinic.org/symptoms/hypoxemia/basics/definition/sym-20050930
[3] Benson, B. B., & Krause Jr, D. (1984). The concentration and isotopic fractionation
of oxygen dissolved in freshwater and seawater in equilibrium with the atmosphere.
Limnology and oceanography, 29(3), 620-632.
[4] Ross, C. T. (2006). A conceptual design of an underwater vehicle. Ocean
Engineering, 33(16), 2087-2104
[5] Largest Dams, L. (2013, September 28). The largest submarine in the U.S. Navy
[Video file]. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UxB11eAl-YE
[6] Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (September 12, 2001). Revision Paper about
Submarine Air Treatment. Retrieved from
http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2005/a2/8/pdf1.pdf
[7] Herbich, J. B. (1998). Developments in Offshore Engineering: Wave Phenomena
and Offshore Topics: Wave Phenomena and Offshore Topics. Chapter 10, Diving
and Underwater Life Support. Gulf Professional Publishing.
[8] List of Ohio-class submarines. (2015, November 25). In Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21:57, November 26, 2015, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Ohio-
class_submarines&oldid=692455881
19. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
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[9] Powers, R. (n.d.). U.S. Navy Submarines Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved
November 26, 2015, from http://usmilitary.about.com/od/navy/l/blsubfaq.htm
List of definitions, Symbols and Abbreviation
Alveoli: Alveoli are lungs sacs which allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to move between
the lungs and blood stream.
Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin is a protein molecule in red blood cells that carries oxygen
from the lungs to the body’s tissues and return carbon dioxide from the tissues back to
the lungs.
Cytochrome C: Cytochrome C is the electron transport chain in mitochondria.
Oxygen saturation: Oxygen saturation is the level of oxygen needed in a human blood
to be healthy
Hypoxemia: Hypoxemia is the abnormally low concentration of oxygen in the blood.
Vapor phase fugacity: Fugacity is the effective pressure which replaces the true
pressure in chemical calculations.
Corning model: Coring model Is a meter used to calculate the pH (Acid or Basic) of the
material
Ohio Class Submarine: is a class of nuclear-powered submarine currently used by the
US navy. It has 18 submarines.
Electrolysis: Electrolysis is a technique used to separate oxygen and hydrogen through
a direct electric current.
Microprocessor: The microprocessor is a computer processor that controls the
computer’s central processing unit (CPU)
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙𝑂3(𝑠): The S in the equation represents that it’s Solid
20. SUBMARINES’ ATMOSPHERE CONTROL AND AIR TREATMENT
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monoethanolamine: Monoethanolamine is also called Ethanolamine and it’s an organic
chemical compound.
aqueous: Aqueous solutions are solutions in which the water is the solvent.
SCUBA: Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving where a diver uses a self-
contained underwater breathing apparatus to breathe underwater.