a space frame or space structure is a rigid, lightweight, truss-like structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. Space frames can be used to span large areas with few interior support
Video Lecture: https://youtu.be/zoj6DYMvg2I
Structural System in High Rise building or Tall Building
Emporis standards-
“A multi-story structure between 35-100 meters tall, or a building of unknown
height from 12-39 floors is termed as high rise.
The International Conference on Fire Safety –
"any structure where the height can have a serious impact on evacuation“
Massachusetts, United States General Laws –
A high-rise is being higher than 70 feet (21 m).
Buildings higher than 100m is termed as skyscraper according to emporis.
Buildings 300m or higher is termed as super tall and buildings 600m or taller is termed as mega-tall.
The bundled tube structure meant that "buildings no longer need be boxlike in appearance: they could become sculpture." Hybrids. Hybrids include a varied category of structures where the basic concept of tube is used, and supplemented by other structural support(s).
framed tube structure
structure tube furniture
structure tube canada
tube structural system
tube structure design
tube frame building kits
tube structure buildings
tube framed buildings
interesting civil engineering topics
civil engineering topics for presentation
seminar topics pdf
best seminar topics for civil engineering
civil seminar topics ppt
civil engineering seminar topics 2019
seminar topics for mechanical engineers
mechanical engineering seminar topics 2018
This presentation is an attempt of a comprehensive study about Gridshell Structures.To understand the structure and it's principles we are going to take a look at it's definition. advantages, form development,materials, construction process and joint connections
In order to gain a better understanding of the structure, existing Gridshells have been analysed and studied in depth. Structures Analysed are The Savill Building, Mannheim Multihalle and Centre Pompidou Metz.
A short and elaborate Case Study on High Rise Buildings for the course of Advanced Building Construction from students of 8th Semester Architecture at VNIT, Nagpur (January- April 2017)
The topic is about the basic concepts of shell structure. Shell structures are light weight construction using shell elements. These elements are typically curve and are assembled to make large structured.
STRUCTURAL COST COMPARISON OF LOW RISE BUILDING HAVING MOMENT RESISTING FRAME...IAEME Publication
In Bhuj earthquake 2001, there were collapses of many low rise buildings. After a
very severe seismic shaking, it may be far cheaper to repair, or even rebuild the
damaged structure, than to build a no damaged structure in the first place. With the
help of shear walls the structure can be made which will not collapse in earthquake. It
is general perception in minds of people that shear walls are economical for high rise
buildings. Therefore it is necessary to find out cost efficiency of low rise buildings
with shear walls
STRUCTURAL COST COMPARISON OF LOW RISE BUILDING HAVING MOMENT RESISTING FRAME...IAEME Publication
In Bhuj earthquake 2001, there were collapses of many low rise buildings. After a
very severe seismic shaking, it may be far cheaper to repair, or even rebuild the
damaged structure, than to build a no damaged structure in the first place. With the
help of shear walls the structure can be made which will not collapse in earthquake. It
is general perception in minds of people that shear walls are economical for high rise
buildings. Therefore it is necessary to find out cost efficiency of low rise buildings
with shear walls.
a space frame or space structure is a rigid, lightweight, truss-like structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. Space frames can be used to span large areas with few interior support
Video Lecture: https://youtu.be/zoj6DYMvg2I
Structural System in High Rise building or Tall Building
Emporis standards-
“A multi-story structure between 35-100 meters tall, or a building of unknown
height from 12-39 floors is termed as high rise.
The International Conference on Fire Safety –
"any structure where the height can have a serious impact on evacuation“
Massachusetts, United States General Laws –
A high-rise is being higher than 70 feet (21 m).
Buildings higher than 100m is termed as skyscraper according to emporis.
Buildings 300m or higher is termed as super tall and buildings 600m or taller is termed as mega-tall.
The bundled tube structure meant that "buildings no longer need be boxlike in appearance: they could become sculpture." Hybrids. Hybrids include a varied category of structures where the basic concept of tube is used, and supplemented by other structural support(s).
framed tube structure
structure tube furniture
structure tube canada
tube structural system
tube structure design
tube frame building kits
tube structure buildings
tube framed buildings
interesting civil engineering topics
civil engineering topics for presentation
seminar topics pdf
best seminar topics for civil engineering
civil seminar topics ppt
civil engineering seminar topics 2019
seminar topics for mechanical engineers
mechanical engineering seminar topics 2018
This presentation is an attempt of a comprehensive study about Gridshell Structures.To understand the structure and it's principles we are going to take a look at it's definition. advantages, form development,materials, construction process and joint connections
In order to gain a better understanding of the structure, existing Gridshells have been analysed and studied in depth. Structures Analysed are The Savill Building, Mannheim Multihalle and Centre Pompidou Metz.
A short and elaborate Case Study on High Rise Buildings for the course of Advanced Building Construction from students of 8th Semester Architecture at VNIT, Nagpur (January- April 2017)
The topic is about the basic concepts of shell structure. Shell structures are light weight construction using shell elements. These elements are typically curve and are assembled to make large structured.
STRUCTURAL COST COMPARISON OF LOW RISE BUILDING HAVING MOMENT RESISTING FRAME...IAEME Publication
In Bhuj earthquake 2001, there were collapses of many low rise buildings. After a
very severe seismic shaking, it may be far cheaper to repair, or even rebuild the
damaged structure, than to build a no damaged structure in the first place. With the
help of shear walls the structure can be made which will not collapse in earthquake. It
is general perception in minds of people that shear walls are economical for high rise
buildings. Therefore it is necessary to find out cost efficiency of low rise buildings
with shear walls
STRUCTURAL COST COMPARISON OF LOW RISE BUILDING HAVING MOMENT RESISTING FRAME...IAEME Publication
In Bhuj earthquake 2001, there were collapses of many low rise buildings. After a
very severe seismic shaking, it may be far cheaper to repair, or even rebuild the
damaged structure, than to build a no damaged structure in the first place. With the
help of shear walls the structure can be made which will not collapse in earthquake. It
is general perception in minds of people that shear walls are economical for high rise
buildings. Therefore it is necessary to find out cost efficiency of low rise buildings
with shear walls.
Seismic Response of Structure with Single Coreijtsrd
Shear walls and outriggers have been used so far to resist the seismic waves of earthquake and heavy winds actions. The complete failure of the structures that has occurred in the past due to catastrophic earthquake may be avoided with the use of shear wall in the structure. The study is concerned with the use of shear wall as a single core in structure that will resist the seismic waves of earthquake. In the present study analysis of RCC building has been carried out by changing the locations of shear walls in the building. The seismic analysis performed is linear dynamic response spectrum analysis using the well known analysis and design software ETABS 16.2.0. Seismic performance of the building has been investigated based on parameters such as strorey drift, base shear and storey displacement. Belsare Sumit Bandopanth | Dilip Budhlani "Seismic Response of Structure with Single Core" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-3 , April 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd30851.pdf Paper Url :https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/30851/seismic-response-of-structure-with-single-core/belsare-sumit-bandopanth
Seminar abstract non seismic walls -مقاومة قوى الزلازل بالإطارات فقط واهمال ج...Dr.Youssef Hammida
Can we neglect reinforce concrete walls like stairwells, ele
vator shafts and so forth?
*And what are the behavior of these walls during the yielding
point for the steel in work stress stage uncracked section
[Elastic Response Parameters] and after the yielding point in
Plastic stage cracked section (Ultimate strength) since
*(Plastic Hinges) will occur in the Frames during plastic
stage And the frames shall peer all the entire seismic loads
And what are these Condition and arrangements to keep
the section walls in safety during plastic stage
so they can carry just the ordinary(D+L) axial loads.
Dose reinforcement for axial ordinary loads enough for these
walls from collapsing?
All these answers you will get it when you look at the Dis
sertation
Effect of non Seismic Walls
On Moment Resisting Frames in buildings.
Can we neglect reinforce concrete walls like
(stairwells, elevator shafts and so forth)?
*And what are the behavior of these walls during the yielding
point for the steel in work stress stage uncracked section
[Elastic Response Parameters] and after the yielding point in Plastic stage cracked section (Ultimate strength) since
*(Plastic Hinges) will occur in the Frames during plastic
stage And the frames shall peer all the entire seismic loads
And what are these Condition and arrangements to keep
the section walls in safety during plastic stage
so they can carry just the ordinary(D+L) axial loads.
Dose reinforcement for axial ordinary loads enough for these walls from collapsing?
All these answers you will get it when you look at the Dissertation
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
Home assignment II on Spectroscopy 2024 Answers.pdf
Structural systems and aerodynamic in multi stoery buildings
1. STURCTUAL SYSTEMS AND
AERODYNAMICS IN MULTI-STOREY
BUILDINGS
BY
MANOJ KUMAR. M
4PS16CCS07
UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF
DR.B.S.JAYASHANKARBABU SIR
P.E.S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,MANDYA
CIVIL ENGINEERING(CAD OF STRUCTURES)
2. CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
LATERAL LOADS AFFECTED MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS OF MULTI-STOREY BULIDINGS
AERODYNAMICS IN MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS
CASE SUTDY
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
3. INTRODUCTION
The continuing economic prosperity and population increase in the urban
areas point toward a future with increased activity in high-rise construction
of residential and office buildings.
However, construction of high-rise buildings can be economically attractive
only if the structural engineers can have comprehensive understanding of
the structural behaviours of various structural systems and the practical
sense of the construction problems.
Fazlur Rahman Khan, initiated important structural systems for
skyscrapers Considered the “father of tubular designs” for high-rises, Khan
was also a pioneer in computer-aided design (CAD).
He has been called the “Einstein of structural engineering” and the
“Greatest Structural Engineer of the 20th Century” for his innovative use
of structural systems that remain fundamental to modern skyscraper design
and construction.
4. LATERAL LOADS AFFECTING MULTI-
STOREY BULIDINGS
From the structural design point of view, tall (high-rise) buildings, because
of their extraordinary height, show a greater sensitivity to,
Wind Load
Earthquake induced lateral loads than low-rise buildings.
The wind loads affecting the building and the response of the building depend on the
following factors:
1. The characteristics of the wind
2. The building size and geometry
3. The stiffness of the building and the distribution of the building mass
4. The inherent damping characteristics of the structural system and of the construction
material, which dissipates wind-induced building sway
5. The surrounding topography (issues with neighbouring buildings, etc.)
6. The orientation (position) of the building with respect to the prevailing wind direction.
5. Earthquakes are the propagation of energy released as seismic waves in the earth
when the earth’s crust cracks, or when sudden slippage occurs along the cracks
because of the movement of the earth’s tectonic plates relative to one another.
The magnitude of the lateral force (F) on a structure formed by the effect of an
earthquake depends on the structure’s mass (m), the ground acceleration (a) and
the structure’s dynamic characteristics (F α ma).
As the height of a structure increases, the flexibility also increases and the
acceleration is expected to be less than in low-rise structures (F<ma); however,
for structures whose natural period is close to that of the seismic waves, in
earthquakes of long duration, the lateral force (F) affecting the structure may be
larger than the mass of the structure multiplied by the ground acceleration (F>ma)
6. THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS OF MULTI-
STOREY BUILDINGS
Tall building structural systems:
1. Rigid frame systems
2. Flat plate/slab systems
3. Core systems
4. Mega core system
5. Shear wall systems
6. Shear-frame systems
7. Mega column (mega frame, space truss) systems
8. Outriggered frame systems
9. Tube systems.
7. RIGID FRAME SYSTEM
Rigid frame systems, also called moment frame systems, are used in steel and
reinforced concrete buildings.
A rigid frame is an unbraced frame that can resist both vertical and lateral loads by
the bending of beams and columns.
Reinforced concrete is an ideal material for this system by its naturally monolithic
behaviour, resulting with inherent rigidity at connections.
The structural stiffness of rigid frames is directly proportional to the cross-
sectional dimensions and bending rigidity of the beams and columns, and
inversely proportional to their length and spacing.
For buildings constructed in regions of high seismic activity the details of the
connections between structural elements are very important because of the need
for ductile behaviour in the rigid frame due to the large lateral drift during severe
earthquakes.
8. In the structural engineering beam theory term, plastic hinge, is used to describe
the deformation of a section of a beam where plastic bending occurs. the plastic
moment (Mp) is a property of a structural section. It is defined as the moment at
which the entire cross section has reached its yield stress.
In the structural design of reinforced concrete rigid frames, it is necessary to
design the columns to be stronger than the beams so that plastic hinges can be
formed in the beams.
Rigid frame systems efficiently and economically provide sufficient stiffness to
resist wind and earthquake induced lateral loads in buildings of up to about 25
storeys.
The 21-storey, 94 m high Lever House (New York, 1952)Rigid frame system
9. FLAT PLATE/SLAB SYSTEM
Flat plate/slab systems are used in reinforced concrete buildings. This system
consists of beamless floor slabs of constant thickness and columns.
Column capitals or gussets can be placed on the upper ends of the columns to
reduce the punching effect created by shear forces in the connections between the
columns and slabs.
Using a flat ceiling instead of one with beams, and thus attaining the maximum
net floor height, is a major architectural advantage of this system.
In resisting lateral loads, flat plate/slab systems may be insufficient, compared
with rigid frames. The reason for this is the shallow-wide-beam behaviour of the
floor slab, with low flexural rigidity.
Flat plate/slab systems efficiently and economically provide sufficient stiffness to
resist wind and earthquake induced lateral loads in buildings of up to about 25
storyes.
10. Flat plate/slab systems (a) without column capitals, (b) with column capitals,(c) with gussets
11. CORE SYSTEM
This system consists of a reinforced concrete core shear wall resisting all the
vertical and lateral loads.
In general, a core wall is an open core that is converted into a partially closed core
by using floor beams and slabs so as to increase the lateral and torsional stiffness
of the building.
The behaviour of closed cores is ideal against building torsion under lateral loads,
a partially closed core is used to approximate this for architectural reasons. Thus, a
partially closed core is produced by supporting the open part of the core with
beams and slabs having satisfactory strength against shear and bending.
The flexural rigidity of the core in the core systems is limited by the flexural depth
of the core.
Thus, in supertall buildings or in cases where the lateral load is very great, the
flexural rigidity of the building is not sufficient unless a mega core is used.
12. Core systems efficiently and economically provide sufficient
stiffness to resist wind and earthquake induced lateral loads in
buildings of up to about 20 storeys.
In core systems, floor slabs are cantilevered from
the core shear wall independently, or else cantilevered
modules of floor slabs are used.
In the case of cantilevered modules, floor slabs, except the bottom
slab of each module, are cantilevered from the core shear wall and
are supported by discontinuous perimeter columns down through
the height of the modules.
The bottom slab of each module is a strengthened cantilever
floor slab which supports the perimeter columns of the upper
storeys in the module.
Slabs in core systems: (a) cantilever
slabs,(b) strengthened cantilever slab
13. MEGA CORE SYSTEMS
Mega core systems consist of reinforced concrete or composite core shear walls
with much larger cross-sections than normal, running continuously throughout the
height of the building.
Since the mega core can resist all vertical and lateral loads in this system, there is
no need for columns or shear walls on the perimeter of the building.
In mega core systems, floor slabs are cantilevered from the core shear wall, Mega
core systems can also be used with strengthened cantilever slabs.
Slabs in the mega core system: (a) cantilever slab, (b) supported
cantilever slab
14. Mega core systems efficiently and economically provide sufficient stiffness to
resist wind and earthquake induced lateral loads in buildings of more than 40
storeys.
Examples of tall buildings using the mega core system with reinforced concrete
structural. The 52-storey, 235 m high 8 Shenton Way (Singapore, 1986).
Which has a reinforced concrete core shear wall having circular cross-section with
an external diameter of 25 m and thickness varying between 1.65 to 1 m (from
bottom to top)
15. SHEAR WALL SYSTEMS
This system consists of reinforced concrete shear walls, which can be perforated
(with openings) or solid.
Shear wall systems can be thought of as a vertical cantilever rigidly fixed at the
base, and can resist all vertical and lateral loads on a building without columns.
Owing to the nature of cantilever behaviour, the inter-storey drift between
adjacent floors is greater in the upper floors than in the other floors.
For this reason, in supertall buildings it is difficult
to control the lateral drift at the building top.
Shear wall systems efficiently and economically
provide sufficient stiffness to resist wind and
earthquake induced lateral loads in buildings of up
to about 35 storeys.
16. SHEAR-FRAME SYSTEMS
Rigid frame systems economically do not have sufficient resistance against lateral
loads in buildings over 25 storeys because of bending on columns that causes large
deformations.
In this case, the total stiffness and so the economical height of the building can be
increased by adding vertical shear trusses (braces) and shear walls to the rigid
frame to carry the external shear induced by lateral loads.
Rigid frame, shear truss (brace), and shear wall
17. SHEAR TRUSSED FRAME (BRACED FRAME)
SYSTEMS
Shear trussed frame (braced frame) systems consist of rigid frames and braces in
the form of vertical trusses.
Diagonal brace elements between the columns of the rigid frame create a truss
frame at that bay where those columns act as vertical continuous chords.
Columns, beams and braces are generally made of steel, sometimes composite, but
rarely are of reinforced concrete.
Because the lateral loads can act in all directions and cyclic, brace elements are
exposed to both tension and compression.
Reinforced concrete braces are weak in tension due to the inherent characteristic
of concrete. Therefore, in general, steel but sometimes composite braces are
preferred.
18. Architecturally, shear truss bracing can be divided into four groups,
1. diagonal-bracing
2. x-bracing (cross-bracing)
3. chevron-bracing (v-bracing)
4. knee-bracing.
Structurally, shear truss bracing can be divided into two groups,
1. concentric-bracing
2. eccentric-bracing.
The shear trussed frame system has been used in
many tall buildings which held the title of
“the world’s tallest building” in its time, the
102-storey, 381 m high Empire State Building
(New York, 1931)
19. SHEAR WALLED FRAME SYSTEMS
Shear walled frame systems consist of rigid frames and reinforced concrete shear
walls that are solid .
In general, shear walls are of reinforced concrete; occasionally of composite
formed by concrete encased structural steel, or of steel plates. Columns and beams
are reinforced concrete, steel or composite.
Some examples of tall buildings using the shear walled frame system with
reinforced concrete structural material include, the 65-storey, 293 m high 311
South Wacker Drive (Chicago, 1990)
20. MEGA COLUMN SYSTEMS
Mega column systems consist of reinforced concrete or composite columns and
shear walls with much larger cross-sections than normal, running continuously
throughout the height of the building.
In this system, mega columns and mega shear walls can resist all the vertical and
lateral loads.
Due to the probable insufficiency of floor slabs acting as rigid floor diaphragms,
to support this behaviour of restraining the columns laterally, belts, vierendeel
frames, and mega braces are used.
In this way, all external mega columns and/or shear walls are connected to
participate in the lateral stiffness of the structure.
21. Mega columns can also be used solely to provide large spaces at the building
entrance, as an aid to the main structural system for the levels above the entrance,
without running continuously throughout the height of the building.
As the number of mega columns at the entrance is much lower than the number of
columns on the upper storeys, the structural transition between them is achieved
using deep transfer beams.
In such cases, the cross-sectional dimensions of the column at the entrance are
large enough for it to be classified as a “mega column”, but the structural system
cannot be classified as a “mega column system”.
Cheung Kong Centre, Hong Kong, China, 1999
22. OUTRIGGERED FRAME SYSTEMS
Outriggered frame systems have been developed by adding outriggers to shear-
frame systems with core (core-frame systems) to couple the core with the
perimeter (exterior) columns.
The outriggers are structural elements connecting the core to the perimeter
columns at one or more levels throughout the height of the building to stiffen the
structure.
This structural element is a horizontal extension of the core shear truss/wall to the
perimeter columns in the form of a knee.
Outriggered frame system
23. The outriggers, which are connected rigidly to the core and by hinges to the
perimeter columns, increase the effective flexural depth and so the flexural
stiffness of the system in the direction of bending under lateral loads by enabling
the core to receive support from the perimeter columns.
Outrigger to perimeter column connections: (a) rigid connection,
(b) hinged connection
24. TUBE SYSTEMS
The tube system was innovated in the early 1960s by the famous structural
engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan who is considered the “father of tubular design”.
This system is evolved from the rigid frame system and can be defined as a three-
dimensional rigid frame having the capability of resisting all lateral loads with the
facade structure.
In tubular design, the rigidity of the structural system against lateral loads can be
increased with solutions such as:
1. Closer spacing of the perimeter columns
2. Increasing the depth of the spandrel beams connected to the perimeter columns
3. Adding shear trusses/braces or shear walls to the core
4. Adding an inner tube in place of the core (tube-in-tube)
5. Adding a truss (multi-storey braces) to the building exterior (trussed-tube)
6. Combining more than one tube (bundled-tube).
25. Tube systems can be divided into three types:
1. Framed-tube systems
2. Trussed-tube systems
3. Bundled-tube systems.
The closely spaced perimeter/exterior columns, which are usually spaced at 1.5 to
4.5 m centres, connected by deep spandrel beams at floor levels.
Closely spaced perimeter columns can obstruct the panoramic exterior view from
inside the building.
As a solution, with the aim of preventing the difficulties of access experienced
when passing through these spaces at the building entrance, deep transfer arches
or beams can be used or branching columns can be used.
Below the transfer levels formed by transfer beams and branching columns,
closely spaced columns are replaced with widely spaced columns.
Framed-tube systems
26. Configurations of the ground floor in the framed-tube system
World Trade Center Twin Towers, New York, USA, 1972
27. In order to increase the spacing between the columns without inhibiting the
tubular behaviour, connecting the perimeter columns with exterior multi-storey
braces led to the development of the trussed-tube (braced-tube) system.
In buildings with steel or composite trussed-tube systems, multi-storey braces are
used on the facade of the building.
In the case of buildings with reinforced concrete trussed-tube systems, spaces
between the columns are filled with reinforced concrete shear walls to form multi-
storey diagonal or X-brace pattern on the exterior of the building.
Trussed-tube systems
Trussed-tube system: (a) Steel or composite,
(b) Reinforced concrete
John Hancock Center, Chicago, USA, 1969
28. Bundled-tube systems are a combination of more than one tube (framed-tube and
trussed-tube) acting together as a single tube.
As the heights of buildings increase, in general their aspect ratios also increase.
The increase in the aspect ratio increases the slenderness and flexibility of the
building, and thus its lateral drift.
In order to keep control of the aspect ratio, it is necessary to increase the cross-
sectional dimensions of the base, which affects the denominator in this ratio.
Thus, in bundled-tube systems, the increase in the cross-sectional dimensions at
the ground floor in order to control the slenderness of the building makes it
possible to reduce the cross-sectional dimensions by different amounts throughout
the height of the building.
Bundled-tube systems
Willis Tower, Chicago, USA, 1974
29. AERODYANAMICS IN MULTI-STOREY
BUILDINGS
AREODYANAMICS is the study of the properties of moving air and the
interaction between the air and solid bodies moving through it.
Wind-induced building motion can essentially be divided into three types,
1. Along-wind motion
2. Across-wind motion
3. Torsional motion.
Tall building motions under the effect of wind
30. VORTEX SHEDDING EFFECT
The along-wind motion, across-wind motion occurs, which is usually
more decisive and critical.
Thus, while the windward face of the building is subject to positive wind
pressure and the leeward face is subject to negative wind pressure
(suction), the across-wind faces of the building are subject to alternating
negative wind pressure.
31. DESIGN AGAINST WIND LOADING
Wind loads, which cause large lateral drift, play a decisive role in the design of tall
buildings and can be even more critical than earthquake loads.
As a result, the wind loads and lateral drift to which tall buildings are subject have
become an important problem.
32. BUILDING ORIENTATION AND SHAPE
Orienting (positioning) the building according to the prevailing wind direction is
an effective design approach for reducing wind loads.
A reduction of between 10–20 per-cent of the across-wind building response can
be obtained by rotating the building to within 10º of the wind direction.
The effectiveness of this approach is dependent on both the wind climate at the
project site and the shape of the building.
In this context, cylindrical, elliptical, conical and twisted forms can be accepted
among the efficient building forms.
The largest lateral drift value exhibited by a building with a circular plan under
wind loads is approximately half of the lateral drift value exhibited by a building
with a square plan.
Due to the facade channels made possible by the twisted form, the effect of wind
on the building is neatly blocked by breaking up the wind flow. Thus, wind-
induced lateral loads are reduced.
33. PLAN VARIATION
Varying the building plan results from the variation in plan dimensions or shape
throughout the height of the building and can be achieved by:
1. reducing the plan area
2. changing the plan shape.
Plan variation by reducing the plan area toward the top of the building results in a
reduction in the surface area affected by the wind at the upper levels of the
building, which lessens the wind intensity and thus the excess pressure.
The reduction in the plan area of the building as it rises can be in the form of:
1. Tapering
2. Setbacks.
Some examples of buildings with tapering and setbacks
34. An analytical study by Khan (1972) has shown that, by creating a slope of 8 per
cent in the facade of a 40-storey building, a 50 per cent reduction of the lateral
drift in the upper stories can be obtained.
Varying the plan by changing the plan shape at various levels throughout the
height of the building causes a corresponding change in the vortex shedding effect.
STRUCTURE-BASED DESIGN
Buildings with symmetrical plan forms exhibit greater structural efficiency under
lateral loads than buildings with asymmetrical plan forms.
A building with a rectangular plan exhibits greater sensitivity to wind loads than
buildings with circular, elliptical, or triangular plans.
Curved or zig-zag plans can also be used to increase the stiffness of the building
against lateral loads.
35. MECHANICAL DESIGN APPROACH
In designing tall buildings, engineers assume a certain level of inherent damping
in the structure when estimating the serviceability of the building under wind and
earthquake-induced lateral loads.
Because the inherent damping capacity of buildings is often insufficient and
difficult to estimate, auxiliary damping systems, the mechanical design approach
are used to reduce the effects of wind-induced vibration.
These systems, known as “dampers”, are mechanisms used to slow the lateral
movement and reduce its magnitude and dampen the building sway by influencing
the phases of force and displacement.
The principle of creating drift in the opposite direction
to the lateral drift of the building by creating a counteracting
inertia force “Tuned mass dampers” (TMDs) are an example
of this kind of system in Taipei 101.
36. AERODYNAMIC ARCHITECTURAL
MODIFICATIONS
In a prismatic building, notched, cut, slotted and rounded corners can reduce the
along-wind and across-wind building response to an important degree.
The corner softening should extend about 10% of the building width.
However, corner modifications may cause adverse effects in serviceability and
safety of the building.
When comparing saw-tooth corners which are a development of recessed corners
with sharp corners, they reduce the wind load affecting the building to an
important degree.
Rounded corners are the most effective type of corner modification.
37. WIND TUNNEL TESTS
As the height of buildings increases, wind loads become increasingly important
for efficient and reliable design.
it is common to conduct wind tunnel tests for tall buildings having high aspect
ratios(the ratio of the width to the height).
The boundary layer wind tunnel differs from aeronautical wind tunnels in that it
models the inherent turbulence in the wind as well as the variation of wind speed
with height above the ground surface.
The sizes of the building and of the wind tunnel determine the scale of the model.
In structural design, the wind load is determined by the results obtained from wind
tunnel tests.
In studies done to determine aerodynamic forces
formed as a result of the interaction of the wind with
tall buildings, the models used in wind tunnel tests are
most commonly on scales of 1:300 and 1:500.
38. CASE STUDY – BURJ KHALIFA, DUBAI
OFFICIAL NAME: Burj Khalifa
LOCATION: Dubai, U.A.E
ARCHITECTURAL HEIGHT: 828 m
NUMBER OF STOREYS: 163
STATUS: Completed
COMPLETION: 2010
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER: William F. Baker(SOM)
STRUCTURAL SYSTEM: Outriggered frame system
reinforced concrete.
39. STRUCTURAL SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
The design of the Burj Khalifa, which derives its main inspiration from the form
of a local desert flower.
The cross-section has three axes in the shape of a Y.
The reduction of the plan area by using setbacks throughout the height of the
building, also reduces wind forces at the upper levels by a reduction in the surface
area affected by the wind.
40. The structural system of the Burj Khalifa is composed of a hexagonal central core
(buttressed by wing shear walls) and outriggers.
Each wing has hammerhead ended corridor shear walls (extending from the central
core), perimeter shear walls at the sides and circular nose columns at the tip.
Outriggers connect the core with the perimeter shear walls and nose columns
through buttresses (wing shear walls).
The hexagonal central core consists of reinforced concrete shear walls with
thicknesses varying between 130 cm at the bottom to 50 cm at the top through the
height of the building.
The slab system on each storey consists of two-way reinforced concrete flat plates
that vary between 20 and 30 cm in depth, while on the upper storeys they vary
between 22.5 and 25 cm in depth.
41. • The central hexagonal reinforced concrete core wall provide the torsional
resistance of the structure similar to a closed tube or axle.
• The central hexagonal walls are buttressed by the wing walls and hammer head
wall which behave as the web and flange of a beam to resist the wind shear and
moments.
• Outrigged allow the columns to participate in the lateral load resistance of the
structure.
42. After each round of wind tunnel testing, the data was analyzed and the building
was reshaped to minimize wind effects and accommodate unrelated changes.
In general, the number and spacing of the setbacks changed as did the shape of
wings.
This process resulted in a substantial reduction in wind forces on the tower by
“confusing” the wind, by encouraging disorganized vortex shedding over the
height of the Tower.
43. CONCLUSION
1. This topic has presented a general review of structural systems for tall buildings.
2. Various structural systems within each category of the new classification have
been described with emphasis on innovations.
3. For the future megastructures in megacities, it is expected that the building
height will be continuously increased in conjunction with the improvements in
technology in structural systems, materials, energy efficiency, and damping
systems.
4. Efficient structural systems in seismic zones also need to be further investigated.
5. Tall rectangular building cause most aerodynamic problem due to height and
circular, tapered, multi-sided building promote good wind flow around the
building.
6. Use projections and set backs to break up the flow of the wind, such as canopies,
balconies, set backs.
7. The Burj khalifa is an excellent example of a successful collaboration between
the requirements of structural systems, wind engineering, and architectural
aesthetics and function, which is essential for a supertall project.
44. REFERENCES
1. Design of high-rise building by Fazlur R. Khan sponsors by ASCE
2. a study on tall buildings and aerodynamic modifications against wind excitation by H.
EMRE ILGIN.
3. THE WIND ENGINEERING OF THE BURJ DUBAI TOWER By Peter A. Irwin1 and
William F. Baker2 1Rowan Williams Davies and Irwin Inc., Guelph, ON, Canada,
Peter.Irwin@rwdi.com 2Skidmore Owings Merrill LLP, Chicago, IL, USA,
William.Baker@som.com.
4. Tall Buildings, Structural Systems and Aerodynamic Form Mehmet Halis Günel and
Hüseyin Emre Ilgin.
5. Structural Developments in Tall Buildings: Current Trends and Future Prospects Mir
M. Ali† and Kyoung Sun Moon.
6. The Challenges in Designing the World’s Tallest Structure
7. The Burj Dubai Tower The Challenges in Designing the World’s Tallest Structure:
8. The Burj Dubai Tower William F. Baker, PE, SE, Partner, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
LLP, Chicago, IL william.baker@som.com James J. Pawlikowski, SE, Associate
Director, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP, Chicago, IL james.pawlikowski@som.com
Bradley S. Young, PE, SE, Associate, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP, Chicago, IL
bradley.young@som.com