Sewer systems are piped networks that transport wastewater from source points like households to treatment facilities. There are several types of sewer systems depending on factors like topography and amount of wastewater. Conventional sewer systems combine wastewater and stormwater in large underground pipes while separate sewer systems transport them separately. Sewer systems require substantial resources to build and maintain but can provide sanitation convenience at scale.
Aquapro is the world’s finest purification system based from Dubai UAE. Our residential and commercial water quality improvement products include a wide range of reverse osmosis systems & residential water testing supplies.
This document provides information on stormwater management. It discusses the need for stormwater management to reduce flooding and pollution from surface runoff. It describes various techniques used in rural and urban areas to manage stormwater, including temporary storage methods like detention ponds and infiltration methods like grass filter strips. Effective stormwater management requires expert planning, implementation, and ongoing maintenance. When implemented properly, stormwater management provides flood control and water quality benefits while allowing stormwater to be reused.
“DESIGN & DEVELOPMENT OF AQUATIC WEEDS COLLECTING MACHINE”IRJET Journal
This document describes the design and development of an aquatic weeds collecting machine. The machine aims to automatically and efficiently clean up water bodies that are polluted with weeds and garbage. It uses a conveyor belt system powered by a propeller and battery to collect floating debris. The collected waste is then deposited into a storage tank. The machine is constructed using lightweight and corrosion-resistant PVC pipes. It can be remotely operated to clean rivers and lakes without human intervention. The automated design aims to improve the cleanliness of water bodies in a cost-effective and environmentally friendly manner.
The document is a final report summarizing the design of a sediment trap for a research flume. It describes the initial designs considered and the final designs selected, including drawings and calculations. The sediment trap will trap and continuously weigh sediment in the flume before removing and transporting it to a dumpster, separating the sediment from the water for recirculation.
Design and Fabrication of a Portable, Remote Controlled, 360°rotating Robotic...IJSRED
This document describes the design and fabrication of a portable, remote controlled robotic arm for sewage cleaning. The robotic arm uses an Arduino board and geared motors to power a 360 degree rotating arm structure. This allows a bucket to be remotely controlled by Bluetooth to clean sewage and remove waste, reducing risks to human workers. The arm is mounted on a mobile base using wheels to access remote areas. Tests showed the robotic arm can efficiently clean sewage while minimizing required human labor and risks to worker safety from hazardous gases.
The document discusses estimating the quantity of sewage that will flow through sewer pipes. It is theoretically equal to the water supply but there are additions and subtractions in practice. Additions include unaccounted private water sources and infiltration of groundwater into sewer pipes. Subtractions include water used for purposes other than sewage like watering gardens. The design sewage quantity is estimated by considering factors like population growth rates and per capita water consumption rates. Peak sewage flows also need to be estimated to size sewer pipes appropriately.
IRJET- Smart Water Tank Cleaning Machine for Household ApplicationsIRJET Journal
This document describes the design of a smart water tank cleaning machine for household applications. The machine uses two main mechanisms - a rack and pinion gear mechanism to move the cleaning system up and down the tank, and a four-bar linkage mechanism connected to brushes to scrub the interior surfaces. The system aims to reduce human effort and risks associated with manual cleaning. It consists of motors, a shaft, PVC or nylon brushes, bevel gears, spray nozzles, and other components. The document discusses the machine's methodology, components, 3D model, costs, and concludes the smart system provides an effective and safer cleaning method with less time and effort required compared to conventional cleaning methods.
Aquapro is the world’s finest purification system based from Dubai UAE. Our residential and commercial water quality improvement products include a wide range of reverse osmosis systems & residential water testing supplies.
This document provides information on stormwater management. It discusses the need for stormwater management to reduce flooding and pollution from surface runoff. It describes various techniques used in rural and urban areas to manage stormwater, including temporary storage methods like detention ponds and infiltration methods like grass filter strips. Effective stormwater management requires expert planning, implementation, and ongoing maintenance. When implemented properly, stormwater management provides flood control and water quality benefits while allowing stormwater to be reused.
“DESIGN & DEVELOPMENT OF AQUATIC WEEDS COLLECTING MACHINE”IRJET Journal
This document describes the design and development of an aquatic weeds collecting machine. The machine aims to automatically and efficiently clean up water bodies that are polluted with weeds and garbage. It uses a conveyor belt system powered by a propeller and battery to collect floating debris. The collected waste is then deposited into a storage tank. The machine is constructed using lightweight and corrosion-resistant PVC pipes. It can be remotely operated to clean rivers and lakes without human intervention. The automated design aims to improve the cleanliness of water bodies in a cost-effective and environmentally friendly manner.
The document is a final report summarizing the design of a sediment trap for a research flume. It describes the initial designs considered and the final designs selected, including drawings and calculations. The sediment trap will trap and continuously weigh sediment in the flume before removing and transporting it to a dumpster, separating the sediment from the water for recirculation.
Design and Fabrication of a Portable, Remote Controlled, 360°rotating Robotic...IJSRED
This document describes the design and fabrication of a portable, remote controlled robotic arm for sewage cleaning. The robotic arm uses an Arduino board and geared motors to power a 360 degree rotating arm structure. This allows a bucket to be remotely controlled by Bluetooth to clean sewage and remove waste, reducing risks to human workers. The arm is mounted on a mobile base using wheels to access remote areas. Tests showed the robotic arm can efficiently clean sewage while minimizing required human labor and risks to worker safety from hazardous gases.
The document discusses estimating the quantity of sewage that will flow through sewer pipes. It is theoretically equal to the water supply but there are additions and subtractions in practice. Additions include unaccounted private water sources and infiltration of groundwater into sewer pipes. Subtractions include water used for purposes other than sewage like watering gardens. The design sewage quantity is estimated by considering factors like population growth rates and per capita water consumption rates. Peak sewage flows also need to be estimated to size sewer pipes appropriately.
IRJET- Smart Water Tank Cleaning Machine for Household ApplicationsIRJET Journal
This document describes the design of a smart water tank cleaning machine for household applications. The machine uses two main mechanisms - a rack and pinion gear mechanism to move the cleaning system up and down the tank, and a four-bar linkage mechanism connected to brushes to scrub the interior surfaces. The system aims to reduce human effort and risks associated with manual cleaning. It consists of motors, a shaft, PVC or nylon brushes, bevel gears, spray nozzles, and other components. The document discusses the machine's methodology, components, 3D model, costs, and concludes the smart system provides an effective and safer cleaning method with less time and effort required compared to conventional cleaning methods.
IRJET- Solar Operated based River CleaningIRJET Journal
This document describes a proposed solar-powered river cleaning machine. The machine uses a chain drive mechanism powered by a solar-panel-charged battery to move lifting buckets up and down in the river. The buckets collect garbage and debris from the river water, then drain the water back while depositing the collected waste in a storage bin. The goal is to automatically clean rivers and reduce pollution from manual cleaning methods, while using a renewable solar energy source. Key components include the solar panels, battery, motor, chain drive, lifting buckets, and storage bin. It is intended to help maintain water purity and hygienic conditions in an environmentally friendly way.
Wastewater treatment is a process used to remove contaminants from wastewater and convert it into an effluent that can be returned to the water cycle. Once returned to the water cycle, the effluent creates an acceptable impact on the environment or is reused for various purposes (called water reclamation).
Design of an Automated Central Water Filtering System Connected to Existing W...Salih Güven
This document is a term project report submitted by a group of 4 mechanical engineering students at Yeditepe University in Istanbul for their ME 482 Design of Mechanical Systems course. The project involves designing an automated central water filtering system connected to existing water dispensers in the engineering building. The report includes sections on literature review of relevant companies and patents, preliminary design alternatives considered, selection of final designs, calculations of head losses and flow rates, and conclusions. The goal of the project is to address issues with the current discrete water supply system using large water bottles by implementing a continuous supply system with centralized filtering and distribution to dispensers on each floor.
This document provides answers to questions about rainwater harvesting systems from Contech's webinar series. It discusses applications of harvested water, design considerations like sizing cisterns and mechanical systems, treatment requirements, and regulations. The experts profiled specialize in rainwater harvesting, stormwater treatment, and detention design. They provide guidance on system components, maintenance, and overcoming challenges like freezing temperatures.
2015-2016 Mechanical/Civil Undergraduate Senior Design
Water Treatment by Hydrodynamic Cavitation and Ultraviolet Radiation
NEED:
1. ADD DETAIL TO DISCUSSION
2. ADD TABLE FOR BUDGET SECTION
3. NAMES ON PAGES
4. Environmental Section
5. Add the solid works model
6. Cover page
7. Add decision matrices
Submitted by
Christopher Bitikofer
Sarah Ridha
Brandyn Krieger
Terran Engle
Project Mentor
Chikashi Sato, Ph.D
Draft 2 Submitted: 11/6/2015
Table of Contents
Introduction 2
Discussion 3
Detailed Engineering Specifications: 4
System Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) 5
Management 7
Budget 8
Appendices 9
Capability Statements 9
Gantt Chart 10
References 11
Introduction
Access to clean drinking water in underdeveloped areas of the world is a growing problem due to global increases in both population and pollution. Current methods of water treatment are impractical to apply in many parts of the world, as these technologies are expensive, require large facilities staffed by a litany of professionals, and the production/disposal of treatment chemicals that often have negative environmental impacts. The need to develop a method of water treatment that is less expensive, operates without the use of chemical treatments, and has relatively low electrical power usage is of profound importance. One of the most viable and promising optionsoptions is to make use both cavitation and ultraviolet light (UV). The purpose of this project is to develop a system for researching the combined effects of these two forms of water purification.
Cavitation occurs when the static pressure of water drops below vapor pressure. Small microbubbles form and slowly collapse in an energetic manner. As cavitation bubbles collapse, temperatures within the bubble can reach upwards of 5000 degrees Kelvin. Due to pyrolytic decomposition that takes place within the collapsing bubbles, the OH radicals and shock waves arecan be generated at the gas–liquid interface (A. Agarwal et al, 2011). These radicals degrade contaminants suspended within the water that would otherwise resist ultraviolet degradation. This makes cavitation a promising method of water treatment.
Ultra violet light is capable of killing bacteria and living contaminants in water. Short wavelength UV light, in the range of 10 nm to 400 nm, kills cells by interacting with their structures and disrupting DNA (NIOSH, 2008). UV light is capable of killing up to 99.99% of bacteria in clear water. This system of water purification is both cost effective and nontoxicchemical free but it cannot break down particle contaminants that bacteria tend to live in. However in combination with a particle filtration system, or in our case a cavitation system, UV reactors are simple to maintain, cost effective and chemical free.
The concise purpose of this team’s senior design project will be to develop a fluid flow test apparatus to demonstrate the degree of effectiveness of the combination of UV radi.
This document provides information on wells, including how they can optimize local water systems, different types of wells, design and construction principles, operation and maintenance, applicability, and advantages and disadvantages. It discusses dug wells and drilled wells. Dug wells are excavated by hand, can serve communities, but risk contamination. Drilled wells use drilling techniques, require pumps, but are less susceptible to contamination. Proper siting, lining, casing, and protection are important to well design and safety. Ongoing maintenance is also needed to ensure safe water supply.
This document provides an overview of general considerations for designing a water distribution system. It discusses 12 key factors to consider:
1. Circulation of water in the system to avoid dead ends.
2. Ensuring the construction and design allows sufficient water supply at all times and desired pressures.
3. Preventing contamination from sewage by proper separation of water and sewer pipes.
4. Providing adequate earth cushioning over main pipes laid under roads.
5. Designing the system economically by considering factors like pumping heads and pipe diameters.
6. Ensuring adequate water supply for fire demands.
7. Setting proper pipe gradients based on ground contours and hydraulic gradients.
This document summarizes a proposed project exploring alternate lime conveying systems from a lime mill to a boiler at Shree Cement Ltd. in Beawar, India. It provides details of the current pneumatic conveying system and proposes several alternate systems including a Liftube system, belt sealing system, air slider gravity conveyor, pipe belt conveyor, and EBS conveyor. It analyzes the feasibility of using existing belt conveyors with added sealing or a new air slide system. The document estimates power requirements and costs for each option and calculates payback periods of less than one year for retrofitting existing systems with sealing.
This document provides an overview of rainwater harvesting including its benefits and components. It discusses how rainwater harvesting systems typically include a catchment area, conveyance system to move water from the catchment to storage, a storage facility, and a delivery system. Key factors in selecting a technology include rainfall levels, costs, and alternative water sources. Benefits include providing a free water source and reducing stormwater runoff. Regular maintenance is required to ensure water quality is not compromised. The feasibility depends on rainfall levels and storage capacity.
Backflow Best Practices and Standard Details: Part 2Safe-T-Cover
1. Water utilities are increasingly requiring premise isolation backflow prevention to protect water supplies from contamination risks on customer properties.
2. Industry standards now recognize outdoor aboveground installation as the best practice for premise isolation systems due to risks of indoor installations. Indoor vaults and in-building placements increase safety, liability and flooding risks.
3. The presentation provides details on the risks of different placement methods and argues for adopting standard details for outdoor aboveground systems to address professional liability concerns and meet recognized best practices.
Backflow Best Practices and Standard Details: Part 3Safe-T-Cover
This presentation focuses on the increasingly popular move by public water systems to require RPZ backflow preventers on all water lines.
This is the third of a three part series on backflow preventer installation, standard details, and best practices. The series focuses on three key facts: Water utilities are seeking more premise-isolation cross connection control. More containment systems are being specified as RPZ regardless of hazard threshold. The AWWA, ASPE, & the legal community recognize “outside aboveground” as ‘best practice’ for backflow installation.
Part 1: http://www.slideshare.net/CraigCarmon/backflow-best-practices-and-standard-details-part-1
Part 2: http://www.slideshare.net/CraigCarmon/backflow-best-practices-and-standard-details-part-2
1) A water distribution system design includes estimating water demand, selecting proper pipe sizes and materials, and constructing pump and storage systems to deliver water from its source to customers.
2) Pipes are buried beneath streets and their layout follows the road pattern to efficiently cover the service area.
3) Pumps are needed to lift water from its source or treatment plant and push it into distribution mains, as well as to boost pressure at points in the system so water can reach heights required. Centrifugal and positive-displacement pumps are commonly used.
DHI UK - BRIEFING FOR UK AND IRELAND WATER COMPANIES - NO 4 - UDG EDITION - N...Stephen Flood
BRIEFING FOR UK & IRELAND WATER COMPANIES
Welcome to a special 'CIWEM UDG 2016' issue of DHI-UK's biannual newsletter for Water Companies and their Consultants. The full and complete fourth edition will be available soon.
Publication is primarily through Linkedin, so please share with your colleagues and friends.
Fabrication of Semi-Automatic Water Cleaning SystemIRJET Journal
This document describes the design and fabrication of a semi-automatic water cleaning system. The system uses a conveyor belt mechanism powered by an electric motor to collect waste from water surfaces and deposit it into a collection container. The objectives of the system are to reduce the time, labor, and costs required for manual cleaning of water bodies while also improving water quality and protecting aquatic wildlife. The system consists of a floating frame made of PVC pipes that supports the conveyor belt, motor, and collection container. It is remotely controlled and can efficiently remove debris from rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water in an environmentally friendly manner. Testing showed the system successfully collected waste while requiring less manual effort compared to traditional cleaning methods.
DRIP IRRIGATION PIPE INDUSTRY PROJECT...lalwanilisaa
The document summarizes a visit by students to a drip irrigation pipe manufacturing plant. It describes the production process which involves extruding plastic into pipes, adding drippers, quality testing, packaging and shipping. A flow chart outlines the key stages of material preparation, extrusion, cooling, marking, quality control, and packaging. Critical questions are examined about common problems with drip irrigation systems and how to improve their effectiveness and lifespan. Drip irrigation is concluded to be an efficient water delivery method and suggestions are provided to optimize the manufacturing process.
Pressure Loss Optimization of a Sprinkler ValveOmar Wannous
This document summarizes a bachelor's thesis on optimizing pressure loss in a sprinkler valve. The thesis involved researching fluid mechanics principles, high pressure water mist systems, and classification standards. It then conducted an extensive feasibility study and CFD simulations on the valve's design. This uncovered deviations from theoretical predictions due to simplifying assumptions. Several potential redesigned concepts were simulated, with the best concept upgraded and field tested. The final optimized design achieved the project's goal of reducing pressure loss through the valve, improving water mist system functionality for land and marine applications.
IRJET - Design and Development of Automatic Urinal Flushing SystemIRJET Journal
This document describes the design and development of an automatic urinal flushing system to help maintain clean and hygienic public restrooms. The system uses mechanical components like springs and linkages activated by a person's weight on a pedestal to open and close valves, directing water flow from a primary tank to flush the urinal without manual operation. The system aims to save water and reduce maintenance costs compared to sensor-based automatic systems while still allowing hands-free operation. An overview is provided of the components, working mechanism, advantages in preventing odor and disease spread, and applications for use in places like train stations, parks, and offices to support India's Swachh Bharat Mission for sanitation.
IRJET - Design of Water Distribution Network using EPANET SoftwareIRJET Journal
This document describes using EPANET software to design a water distribution network for three wards in AnjarakandyGrama Panchayath, Kannur district, India. EPANET was used to carry out the design and hydraulic analysis of the network. Input data on nodes, pipes, demands, and system parameters were modeled in EPANET. The results from EPANET, including pressures at nodes and flows/velocities in pipes, showed the designed system was feasible. The performance of the EPANET model was also compared to a manual Hardy-Cross method analysis.
Development of A Solar-Powered Slider-Crank Mechanism for Hand Pump in Rural ...IJAEMSJORNAL
The demand for alternative water pumping mechamism needed to overcome the challenges facing people in the remote areas is on the increase. The conventional manually operated hand pump requires a large amount of energy before quality water can be pumped for domestic and irrigation purposes. This limits its usage by the average persons, the elderly and the disabled. This study presents the development of a solar-powered slider crank mechanism, a more energy friendly drive system. Slider crank mechanism with connecting rod 70 mm, radius of crank 14.8 mm and a frame with width, breadth and height of 70 mm, 70 mm, 134 mm, respectively was fabricated using mild steel. Solar panel, charge controller, battery and low speed motor were used to power the mechanism. The performance of the solar powered slider-crank aided system for pumping water was evaluated in terms of actual and theoretical discharge, as well as volumetric and pumps efficiencies with values of 0.01693 m3/s, 0.01302 m3/s, 76.905%, 73.26%, respectively. Conclusively, the solar powered slider-crank aided water pumping system is about 24% better in terms of performance compared to the conventional manually operated hand pump.
An engineering drawing is a technical drawing that clearly defines and communicates a design. It allows for collaboration in design, procurement, manufacturing, quality control, and other areas. The document then discusses various topics related to engineering drawings including types of lines, dimensioning, lettering, and scales.
An engineering drawing is a technical drawing that clearly defines and communicates a design. It is used for collaboration, procurement, manufacturing, and quality control. The document discusses the role of graphics in visualization, communication, and documentation. It provides examples of engineering drawing applications in construction, manufacturing, and ships. The document also covers drawing instruments, types of lines, dimensioning, lettering, and scales used in engineering drawings.
IRJET- Solar Operated based River CleaningIRJET Journal
This document describes a proposed solar-powered river cleaning machine. The machine uses a chain drive mechanism powered by a solar-panel-charged battery to move lifting buckets up and down in the river. The buckets collect garbage and debris from the river water, then drain the water back while depositing the collected waste in a storage bin. The goal is to automatically clean rivers and reduce pollution from manual cleaning methods, while using a renewable solar energy source. Key components include the solar panels, battery, motor, chain drive, lifting buckets, and storage bin. It is intended to help maintain water purity and hygienic conditions in an environmentally friendly way.
Wastewater treatment is a process used to remove contaminants from wastewater and convert it into an effluent that can be returned to the water cycle. Once returned to the water cycle, the effluent creates an acceptable impact on the environment or is reused for various purposes (called water reclamation).
Design of an Automated Central Water Filtering System Connected to Existing W...Salih Güven
This document is a term project report submitted by a group of 4 mechanical engineering students at Yeditepe University in Istanbul for their ME 482 Design of Mechanical Systems course. The project involves designing an automated central water filtering system connected to existing water dispensers in the engineering building. The report includes sections on literature review of relevant companies and patents, preliminary design alternatives considered, selection of final designs, calculations of head losses and flow rates, and conclusions. The goal of the project is to address issues with the current discrete water supply system using large water bottles by implementing a continuous supply system with centralized filtering and distribution to dispensers on each floor.
This document provides answers to questions about rainwater harvesting systems from Contech's webinar series. It discusses applications of harvested water, design considerations like sizing cisterns and mechanical systems, treatment requirements, and regulations. The experts profiled specialize in rainwater harvesting, stormwater treatment, and detention design. They provide guidance on system components, maintenance, and overcoming challenges like freezing temperatures.
2015-2016 Mechanical/Civil Undergraduate Senior Design
Water Treatment by Hydrodynamic Cavitation and Ultraviolet Radiation
NEED:
1. ADD DETAIL TO DISCUSSION
2. ADD TABLE FOR BUDGET SECTION
3. NAMES ON PAGES
4. Environmental Section
5. Add the solid works model
6. Cover page
7. Add decision matrices
Submitted by
Christopher Bitikofer
Sarah Ridha
Brandyn Krieger
Terran Engle
Project Mentor
Chikashi Sato, Ph.D
Draft 2 Submitted: 11/6/2015
Table of Contents
Introduction 2
Discussion 3
Detailed Engineering Specifications: 4
System Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) 5
Management 7
Budget 8
Appendices 9
Capability Statements 9
Gantt Chart 10
References 11
Introduction
Access to clean drinking water in underdeveloped areas of the world is a growing problem due to global increases in both population and pollution. Current methods of water treatment are impractical to apply in many parts of the world, as these technologies are expensive, require large facilities staffed by a litany of professionals, and the production/disposal of treatment chemicals that often have negative environmental impacts. The need to develop a method of water treatment that is less expensive, operates without the use of chemical treatments, and has relatively low electrical power usage is of profound importance. One of the most viable and promising optionsoptions is to make use both cavitation and ultraviolet light (UV). The purpose of this project is to develop a system for researching the combined effects of these two forms of water purification.
Cavitation occurs when the static pressure of water drops below vapor pressure. Small microbubbles form and slowly collapse in an energetic manner. As cavitation bubbles collapse, temperatures within the bubble can reach upwards of 5000 degrees Kelvin. Due to pyrolytic decomposition that takes place within the collapsing bubbles, the OH radicals and shock waves arecan be generated at the gas–liquid interface (A. Agarwal et al, 2011). These radicals degrade contaminants suspended within the water that would otherwise resist ultraviolet degradation. This makes cavitation a promising method of water treatment.
Ultra violet light is capable of killing bacteria and living contaminants in water. Short wavelength UV light, in the range of 10 nm to 400 nm, kills cells by interacting with their structures and disrupting DNA (NIOSH, 2008). UV light is capable of killing up to 99.99% of bacteria in clear water. This system of water purification is both cost effective and nontoxicchemical free but it cannot break down particle contaminants that bacteria tend to live in. However in combination with a particle filtration system, or in our case a cavitation system, UV reactors are simple to maintain, cost effective and chemical free.
The concise purpose of this team’s senior design project will be to develop a fluid flow test apparatus to demonstrate the degree of effectiveness of the combination of UV radi.
This document provides information on wells, including how they can optimize local water systems, different types of wells, design and construction principles, operation and maintenance, applicability, and advantages and disadvantages. It discusses dug wells and drilled wells. Dug wells are excavated by hand, can serve communities, but risk contamination. Drilled wells use drilling techniques, require pumps, but are less susceptible to contamination. Proper siting, lining, casing, and protection are important to well design and safety. Ongoing maintenance is also needed to ensure safe water supply.
This document provides an overview of general considerations for designing a water distribution system. It discusses 12 key factors to consider:
1. Circulation of water in the system to avoid dead ends.
2. Ensuring the construction and design allows sufficient water supply at all times and desired pressures.
3. Preventing contamination from sewage by proper separation of water and sewer pipes.
4. Providing adequate earth cushioning over main pipes laid under roads.
5. Designing the system economically by considering factors like pumping heads and pipe diameters.
6. Ensuring adequate water supply for fire demands.
7. Setting proper pipe gradients based on ground contours and hydraulic gradients.
This document summarizes a proposed project exploring alternate lime conveying systems from a lime mill to a boiler at Shree Cement Ltd. in Beawar, India. It provides details of the current pneumatic conveying system and proposes several alternate systems including a Liftube system, belt sealing system, air slider gravity conveyor, pipe belt conveyor, and EBS conveyor. It analyzes the feasibility of using existing belt conveyors with added sealing or a new air slide system. The document estimates power requirements and costs for each option and calculates payback periods of less than one year for retrofitting existing systems with sealing.
This document provides an overview of rainwater harvesting including its benefits and components. It discusses how rainwater harvesting systems typically include a catchment area, conveyance system to move water from the catchment to storage, a storage facility, and a delivery system. Key factors in selecting a technology include rainfall levels, costs, and alternative water sources. Benefits include providing a free water source and reducing stormwater runoff. Regular maintenance is required to ensure water quality is not compromised. The feasibility depends on rainfall levels and storage capacity.
Backflow Best Practices and Standard Details: Part 2Safe-T-Cover
1. Water utilities are increasingly requiring premise isolation backflow prevention to protect water supplies from contamination risks on customer properties.
2. Industry standards now recognize outdoor aboveground installation as the best practice for premise isolation systems due to risks of indoor installations. Indoor vaults and in-building placements increase safety, liability and flooding risks.
3. The presentation provides details on the risks of different placement methods and argues for adopting standard details for outdoor aboveground systems to address professional liability concerns and meet recognized best practices.
Backflow Best Practices and Standard Details: Part 3Safe-T-Cover
This presentation focuses on the increasingly popular move by public water systems to require RPZ backflow preventers on all water lines.
This is the third of a three part series on backflow preventer installation, standard details, and best practices. The series focuses on three key facts: Water utilities are seeking more premise-isolation cross connection control. More containment systems are being specified as RPZ regardless of hazard threshold. The AWWA, ASPE, & the legal community recognize “outside aboveground” as ‘best practice’ for backflow installation.
Part 1: http://www.slideshare.net/CraigCarmon/backflow-best-practices-and-standard-details-part-1
Part 2: http://www.slideshare.net/CraigCarmon/backflow-best-practices-and-standard-details-part-2
1) A water distribution system design includes estimating water demand, selecting proper pipe sizes and materials, and constructing pump and storage systems to deliver water from its source to customers.
2) Pipes are buried beneath streets and their layout follows the road pattern to efficiently cover the service area.
3) Pumps are needed to lift water from its source or treatment plant and push it into distribution mains, as well as to boost pressure at points in the system so water can reach heights required. Centrifugal and positive-displacement pumps are commonly used.
DHI UK - BRIEFING FOR UK AND IRELAND WATER COMPANIES - NO 4 - UDG EDITION - N...Stephen Flood
BRIEFING FOR UK & IRELAND WATER COMPANIES
Welcome to a special 'CIWEM UDG 2016' issue of DHI-UK's biannual newsletter for Water Companies and their Consultants. The full and complete fourth edition will be available soon.
Publication is primarily through Linkedin, so please share with your colleagues and friends.
Fabrication of Semi-Automatic Water Cleaning SystemIRJET Journal
This document describes the design and fabrication of a semi-automatic water cleaning system. The system uses a conveyor belt mechanism powered by an electric motor to collect waste from water surfaces and deposit it into a collection container. The objectives of the system are to reduce the time, labor, and costs required for manual cleaning of water bodies while also improving water quality and protecting aquatic wildlife. The system consists of a floating frame made of PVC pipes that supports the conveyor belt, motor, and collection container. It is remotely controlled and can efficiently remove debris from rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water in an environmentally friendly manner. Testing showed the system successfully collected waste while requiring less manual effort compared to traditional cleaning methods.
DRIP IRRIGATION PIPE INDUSTRY PROJECT...lalwanilisaa
The document summarizes a visit by students to a drip irrigation pipe manufacturing plant. It describes the production process which involves extruding plastic into pipes, adding drippers, quality testing, packaging and shipping. A flow chart outlines the key stages of material preparation, extrusion, cooling, marking, quality control, and packaging. Critical questions are examined about common problems with drip irrigation systems and how to improve their effectiveness and lifespan. Drip irrigation is concluded to be an efficient water delivery method and suggestions are provided to optimize the manufacturing process.
Pressure Loss Optimization of a Sprinkler ValveOmar Wannous
This document summarizes a bachelor's thesis on optimizing pressure loss in a sprinkler valve. The thesis involved researching fluid mechanics principles, high pressure water mist systems, and classification standards. It then conducted an extensive feasibility study and CFD simulations on the valve's design. This uncovered deviations from theoretical predictions due to simplifying assumptions. Several potential redesigned concepts were simulated, with the best concept upgraded and field tested. The final optimized design achieved the project's goal of reducing pressure loss through the valve, improving water mist system functionality for land and marine applications.
IRJET - Design and Development of Automatic Urinal Flushing SystemIRJET Journal
This document describes the design and development of an automatic urinal flushing system to help maintain clean and hygienic public restrooms. The system uses mechanical components like springs and linkages activated by a person's weight on a pedestal to open and close valves, directing water flow from a primary tank to flush the urinal without manual operation. The system aims to save water and reduce maintenance costs compared to sensor-based automatic systems while still allowing hands-free operation. An overview is provided of the components, working mechanism, advantages in preventing odor and disease spread, and applications for use in places like train stations, parks, and offices to support India's Swachh Bharat Mission for sanitation.
IRJET - Design of Water Distribution Network using EPANET SoftwareIRJET Journal
This document describes using EPANET software to design a water distribution network for three wards in AnjarakandyGrama Panchayath, Kannur district, India. EPANET was used to carry out the design and hydraulic analysis of the network. Input data on nodes, pipes, demands, and system parameters were modeled in EPANET. The results from EPANET, including pressures at nodes and flows/velocities in pipes, showed the designed system was feasible. The performance of the EPANET model was also compared to a manual Hardy-Cross method analysis.
Development of A Solar-Powered Slider-Crank Mechanism for Hand Pump in Rural ...IJAEMSJORNAL
The demand for alternative water pumping mechamism needed to overcome the challenges facing people in the remote areas is on the increase. The conventional manually operated hand pump requires a large amount of energy before quality water can be pumped for domestic and irrigation purposes. This limits its usage by the average persons, the elderly and the disabled. This study presents the development of a solar-powered slider crank mechanism, a more energy friendly drive system. Slider crank mechanism with connecting rod 70 mm, radius of crank 14.8 mm and a frame with width, breadth and height of 70 mm, 70 mm, 134 mm, respectively was fabricated using mild steel. Solar panel, charge controller, battery and low speed motor were used to power the mechanism. The performance of the solar powered slider-crank aided system for pumping water was evaluated in terms of actual and theoretical discharge, as well as volumetric and pumps efficiencies with values of 0.01693 m3/s, 0.01302 m3/s, 76.905%, 73.26%, respectively. Conclusively, the solar powered slider-crank aided water pumping system is about 24% better in terms of performance compared to the conventional manually operated hand pump.
Similar to STAUFFER 2012 Sewer System 120720.ppt (20)
An engineering drawing is a technical drawing that clearly defines and communicates a design. It allows for collaboration in design, procurement, manufacturing, quality control, and other areas. The document then discusses various topics related to engineering drawings including types of lines, dimensioning, lettering, and scales.
An engineering drawing is a technical drawing that clearly defines and communicates a design. It is used for collaboration, procurement, manufacturing, and quality control. The document discusses the role of graphics in visualization, communication, and documentation. It provides examples of engineering drawing applications in construction, manufacturing, and ships. The document also covers drawing instruments, types of lines, dimensioning, lettering, and scales used in engineering drawings.
Contour maps use contour lines to represent three-dimensional terrain in two dimensions. Contour lines connect points of equal elevation and their spacing indicates the steepness of slopes - lines closer together mean steeper terrain. Contour maps provide more detailed topographical information than other map types by depicting the shape and gradient of land and can be used to infer elevation changes even when numerical spot heights are not provided.
This document provides an introduction to reading and interpreting maps for geology and geography students. It covers key map elements like the title, scale, legend, and contours. Contours show elevations and can reveal landforms. Cross-sections help visualize terrain in 2D. The document teaches how to identify features like valleys, ridges, and hills based on contour patterns and recommends drawing cross-sections to confirm interpretations. It emphasizes that maps are a projection of 3D space onto a 2D surface.
This document provides an overview of basic water supply system operations, including sources of drinking water, advantages and disadvantages of surface water and groundwater sources, and treatment processes for both. It discusses intake processes like racks and screens, mixing, coagulation and flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration. Disinfection methods like chlorine, ultraviolet light, and ozone are also covered. The document concludes with descriptions of distribution system facilities such as pumps, storage, transmission mains, valves and hydrants.
A map is a representation of all or part of the Earth's surface drawn to scale. Maps use symbols and colors to represent features like landforms, roads, and vegetation. Contour lines connect points of equal elevation, allowing maps to depict three-dimensional terrain in two dimensions. Contour maps are useful for engineering projects to evaluate sites, trace grades, and calculate earthworks.
The document discusses network models and compares the OSI model and TCP/IP model. It provides details on the layers of the OSI model including the 7 layers from physical to application layer. It describes the functions of each layer such as physical dealing with raw bit transmission, data link framing bits into frames, network routing packets, transport ensuring reliable data delivery, session controlling connections, presentation translating between systems, and application providing user interfaces. It also summarizes the similarities and differences between the OSI and TCP/IP models.
1) The document discusses IP addressing and the different types of addresses used - physical, logical (IP), port, and specific addresses.
2) It describes the four classes of IP addresses - Class A, B, C, and D - and the network and host portions of each. Class A is for large networks, Class B for medium, and Class C for small networks.
3) Certain IP addresses are reserved and cannot be assigned to hosts, including network addresses, broadcast addresses, and the loopback address of 127.0.0.1. Proper allocation of addresses is important to avoid conflicts.
This document provides teaching and learning resources on geometrical constructions. It defines various 2D shapes like polygons, regular polygons, and irregular polygons. It lists the names of polygons according to the number of sides. It also describes 3D solids like cubes, cylinders, prisms, and pyramids. For cubes and cylinders, it provides the formulas to calculate their volume and surface area. It includes examples and diagrams of different types of prisms and pyramids. The resources were prepared by a group consisting of Vanesri Kasi, Yamuna Sandaran, and Tinagaran Magesparan for computer construction.
The document discusses various techniques for drawing geometric shapes and constructions. It covers topics such as drawing parallel and perpendicular lines, bisecting lines and angles, dividing lines into multiple sections, finding the center of arcs and circles, inscribing and circumscribing circles in triangles, drawing regular polygons like hexagons, constructing ellipses, and defining curves like cycloids, epicycloids, involutes, and Archimedean spirals. The document provides step-by-step instructions for performing each geometric construction or drawing.
Topographic maps provide three-dimensional information about natural and man-made features of landscapes using contour lines to show elevations. Contour lines connect points of equal height, with steeper slopes having lines closer together. Topographic maps depict mountains, valleys, plains, rivers, lakes, roads, boundaries, buildings and other structures, and are used for purposes like engineering, planning, military operations, and recreation. Satellite images can be matched to topographic maps using the shapes and elevations of the landscapes.
1) The document provides information on basic geometric elements such as points, lines, angles, and their construction. It also covers plane figures like triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons and circles.
2) Solid geometric shapes such as prisms, pyramids, cylinders and cones are described along with their geometric construction.
3) The document also summarizes methods for constructing common curves like ellipses, parabolas, hyperbolas and their geometric properties.
Engineering drawings are a graphical language used to communicate technical design information between engineers. There are different projection methods for engineering drawings, including orthographic projection and axonometric projection. Orthographic projection uses parallel lines of sight to produce accurate multi-view drawings that show the true shape and size of an object through multiple two-dimensional views. Axonometric projection shows an object's three dimensions in a single view, making it easier to understand but introducing distortions from the true shape and size. Understanding engineering graphics and different projection methods is essential for effective technical communication.
1. Contours are imaginary lines on a map that connect points of equal elevation. Contour maps show these lines, representing the topography of the land.
2. There are two main methods for creating contour maps - direct and indirect. The direct method involves precisely surveying points along contour lines in the field. The indirect method takes spot elevations across an area and interpolates the contour lines.
3. Common indirect techniques include surveying on a grid, along cross-sections, or using a tacheometer to measure multiple points from instrument stations. Spot elevations are plotted and contour lines drawn in between based on the terrain. The indirect method is faster but less precise than the direct method.
Contour lines on a topographical map represent imaginary lines connecting points of equal elevation above or below a datum. The vertical distance between contour lines is called the contour interval. Index contours are drawn with a heavier line every fifth contour to aid identification of elevations. Intermediate contours fall between index contours. Contour lines can be marked in the field using a homemade A-frame leveling device to identify points of equal height and indicate slope. The spacing of contour lines depends on the steepness of the slope, with closer lines used for steeper slopes to prevent soil erosion.
Topographic maps use contour lines to represent the three dimensional shape of the earth's surface. Contour lines connect points of equal elevation and the interval between lines indicates the steepness of slopes. A topographic profile can be created by slicing through a map along a line and plotting the elevations to show the shape and gradient of the terrain from the side.
This document provides an introduction to maps and map elements. It discusses the basic components of maps including titles, scales, legends, and directions. It also describes different types of maps such as general reference maps, thematic maps, and topographic maps. Topographic maps are explained in detail, including how they use contour lines to show elevation changes and terrain features. The key elements of contour maps like contour intervals and index contours are defined. Finally, the document outlines the purposes and uses of contour maps for engineering projects.
This document provides an introduction to map interpretation and sketching for level 1 students. It covers basic map elements like titles, scales, legends, and contours. It describes different map types such as topographic maps and thematic maps. Topographic maps show elevation using contour lines, which represent points of equal height. The spacing of contour lines indicates steep or gentle slopes. Common features like valleys, ridges, hills and depressions are identified by the shape and direction of contour lines. The document is intended to teach students how to interpret maps and understand topographic information.
This document provides an overview of maps and map elements. It discusses the different types of maps including general purpose maps, thematic maps, and topographic maps. It describes the basic elements of maps such as titles, scales, legends, and directions. Contour lines and how to read elevation and slope from topographic maps are explained in detail. The purpose and uses of contour maps for engineering projects are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of maps and map elements. It discusses the different types of maps including general purpose maps, thematic maps, and topographic maps. It describes the basic elements of maps such as titles, scales, legends, and directions. Contour lines and how to read elevation and slope from topographic maps are explained in detail. The purpose and uses of contour maps for engineering projects are also summarized.
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UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 6DianaGray10
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Monitoring and observability aren’t traditionally found in software curriculums and many of us cobble this knowledge together from whatever vendor or ecosystem we were first introduced to and whatever is a part of your current company’s observability stack.
While the dev and ops silo continues to crumble….many organizations still relegate monitoring & observability as the purview of ops, infra and SRE teams. This is a mistake - achieving a highly observable system requires collaboration up and down the stack.
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2. Sewer Systems
Find this presentation and more on: www.sswm.info.
Copy it, adapt it, use it – but acknowledge the source!
Copyright
Included in the SSWM Toolbox are materials from various organisations and sources. Those materials are open source. Following the open-
source concept for capacity building and non-profit use, copying and adapting is allowed provided proper acknowledgement of the source
is made (see below). The publication of these materials in the SSWM Toolbox does not alter any existing copyrights. Material published in
the SSWM Toolbox for the first time follows the same open-source concept, with all rights remaining with the original authors or producing
organisations.
To view an official copy of the the Creative Commons Attribution Works 3.0 Unported License we build upon, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0. This agreement officially states that:
You are free to:
• Share - to copy, distribute and transmit this document
• Remix - to adapt this document. We would appreciate receiving a copy of any changes that you have made to improve this
document.
Under the following conditions:
• Attribution: You must always give the original authors or publishing agencies credit for the document or picture you are using.
Disclaimer
The contents of the SSWM Toolbox reflect the opinions of the respective authors and not necessarily the official opinion of the funding or
supporting partner organisations.
Depending on the initial situations and respective local circumstances, there is no guarantee that single measures described in the toolbox
will make the local water and sanitation system more sustainable. The main aim of the SSWM Toolbox is to be a reference tool to provide
ideas for improving the local water and sanitation situation in a sustainable manner. Results depend largely on the respective situation
and the implementation and combination of the measures described. An in-depth analysis of respective advantages and disadvantages and
the suitability of the measure is necessary in every single case. We do not assume any responsibility for and make no warranty with
respect to the results that may be obtained from the use of the information provided.
Copyright & Disclaimer
3. Sewer Systems
Find this presentation and more on: www.sswm.info.
Contents
1. Concept
2. How it can optimise SSWM
3. Conventional Sewers
4. Separate Sewers
5. Simplified Sewers
6. Solids-free Sewers
7. Pressurised Sewers
8. Vacuum Sewers
9. Channels
10. Sewer Pumping Stations
11. Transfer and Sewer Discharge Station
12.References
3
A large sewer system. Source: RiverSides (n.y.)
4. Sewer Systems
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What is a Sewer System?
• A piped system to transport wastewater (and sometimes storm
water) from the source (households, industry, runoff) to a
treatment facility.
• There are several designs, depending on topography, amount and
kind of wastewater, size of community, etc.
4
1. Concept
“Flush and forget”: in many
cases, sewers lead into
surface water sources
without any treatment.
Source: STAUFFER (2010)
5. Sewer Systems
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What Kinds of Sewer Systems Exist?
There exist several different sewer systems:
•Conventional Sewers
•Separate Sewers
•Simplified Sewers
•Solids-free Sewers
•Pressurised Sewers
•Vacuum Sewers
•Channels
Some of them require supporting elements such as:
•Sewer Pumping Stations
•Transfer Stations
5
1. Concept
6. Sewer Systems
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Think Before You Flush!
What happens with my blackwater?
How could I optimise my behaviour?
6
2. How it can Optimise SSWM
Sewers: a subsidy for the rich to excrete in convenience. Source: NARAIN (2002)
7. Sewer Systems
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7
2. How it can Optimise SSWM
Source: PHADKE, S. (2009): Poo. Pune: Aman Setu
Publication. http://www.susana.org/lang-
en/library?view=ccbktypeitem&type=2&id=706
[Accessed: 22.04.2012].
8. Sewer Systems
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8
2. How it can Optimise SSWM
Source: PHADKE, S. (2009): Poo. Pune: Aman Setu
Publication. http://www.susana.org/lang-
en/library?view=ccbktypeitem&type=2&id=706
[Accessed: 22.04.2012].
9. Sewer Systems
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9
2. How it can Optimise SSWM
Source: PHADKE, S. (2009): Poo. Pune: Aman Setu
Publication. http://www.susana.org/lang-
en/library?view=ccbktypeitem&type=2&id=706
[Accessed: 22.04.2012].
10. Sewer Systems
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10
2. How it can Optimise SSWM
Source: PHADKE, S. (2009): Poo. Pune: Aman Setu
Publication. http://www.susana.org/lang-
en/library?view=ccbktypeitem&type=2&id=706
[Accessed: 22.04.2012].
11. Sewer Systems
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Use a Sewer System
In many countries around the world, flush toilets and sewer systems
are the common sanitary systems.
However, there are several possibilities to keep your wastewater low
and provide a sustainable treatment:
11
2. How it can Optimise SSWM
Rooftop rainwater
harvesting as a
water source.
Urine fertilisation
Urine diversion
flush toilet
Simplified sewer
system
Compost filter
(pre-treatment)
Vertical constructed wetland
12. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle
• Large networks of underground pipes, mostly in urban areas.
• Collection of blackwater, brownwater, greywater and stormwater.
• The system contains three types of sewer lines:
12
3. Conventional Sewers
o Main line (primary): the centre of
the system, all other lines empty
into it.
o Branch lines (secondary): extend
from the main.
o House laterals (tertiary): bring
wastwater from the houses to
the branch lines.
Master sewer system map.
Source: USAID (1982)
13. Sewer Systems
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Design
• Wastewater is transported to a centralised treatment facility by
gravity.
• Depending on topography, sewer pumping stations are necessary.
• The lines are in a depth of 1.5 to 3 m and manholes proved access
for maintenance.
• It must be designed to maintain “self-cleansing” velocity that no
particles accumulate
13
3. Conventional Sewers
Cross-section of a
conventional sewer in a
common urban set-up.
Source: EAWAG/SANDEC (2008)
14. Sewer Systems
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Costs
Initial costs are high because:
• Excavation and refilling of trenches to lay the pipes;
• Requires specialised engineers and operators;
• Maintenance costs are high compared to decentralised systems;
• Extension of the system can be difficult and costly (redesign
of the whole system)
14
3. Conventional Sewers
Maintenance and
operation of the City's
water system is quite a
costly task. Source: THE CITY OF
MADERA (n.y.)
15. Sewer Systems
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Operation & Maintenance
• Maintenance should be done by professionals.
• Manholes are installed wherever there is a change of gradient or
alignment and are used for regular inspection and cleaning.
• It must be systematically planned and carefully implemented.
• Overflows are required to avoid hydraulic surcharge of treatment
plants during heavy rain events.
15
3. Conventional Sewers
Sewer access manhole. Source: USAID (1982)
16. Sewer Systems
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Applicability
• Suitable for urban areas that have the resources such a system.
• They only make sense if a centralised treatment system exists
which is able to handle big loads of waste- and stormwater.
• Sufficient water as a transport medium needs to be available.
• A professional management system must be in place.
• They provide a high level of hygiene and comfort for the user.
16
3. Conventional Sewers
17. Sewer Systems
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17
3. Conventional Sewers
Pros and Cons
Advantages:
• Convenience (minimal
intervention by users)
• Low health risk
• No nuisance from smells,
mosquitoes or flies
• Stormwater and greywater
can be managed at the same
time
• No problems related to
discharging industrial
wastewater
• Moderate operation and
maintenance costs
Disadvantages:
• High capital costs
• Need a reliable supply of piped water
• Difficult to construct in high-density
areas, difficult and costly to maintain
• Recycling of nutrients and energy
becomes difficult
• Unsuitability for self-help, requires
skilled engineers and operators
• Problems associated with blockages
and breakdown of pumping equipment
• Adequate treatment and/or disposal
required
18. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle
In contrast to conventional sewer systems, wastewater (e.g. from
households or industries) and stormwater are transported separately.
18
4. Separate Sewers
Source:
LADEN
(2010)
During heavy rains, overflow contains no harmful blackwater.
Stormwater in general is less contaminated. Source: UNEP and MURDOCH 2004
19. Sewer Systems
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Costs
• Construction costs might be higher than for the combined sewer
system because two separated networks are necessary.
• They must also be maintained and operated separately.
• A replacement of a combined system by a separated system is very
costly.
19
4. Separate Sewers
Operation & Maintenance
• Same as conventional systems
Health Aspect
• More secure than a conventional system, because blackwater is
transported in a closed network.
20. Sewer Systems
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Applicability
• Suitable for urban areas that have the resources to implement,
operate and maintain such systems plus provide adequate
treatment to avoid pollution at the discharge end. UNEP (2002)
• Enough water for transportation must be available.
• Especially suitable during monsoon –> large amounts of stormwater
can be treated separately.
20
4. Separate Sewers
New construction of a separated sewer system in
Germany. Source: VILLINGEN-SCHWENNINGEN (2010)
21. Sewer Systems
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21
4. Separate Sewers
Pros and Cons
Advantages:
• Surface run-off, greywater
and blackwater can be
managed separately
• Limited of sewage overflow
• Low health risk
• No nuisance from smells,
mosquitoes or flies
• No problems related to
discharging industrial
wastewater
• Moderate operation costs
• Surface run-off and rainwater
can be reused
Disadvantages:
• Supply of piped water
• Difficult to construct in high-
density areas, difficult and costly
to maintain
• High capital costs
• Requires skilled engineers and
operators
• Problems associated with
blockages and breakdown of
pumping equipment
• Adequate treatment and/or
disposal required
• Higher risk of water pollution by
accidents
22. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle (MARA 1996)
It is a simplified sewerage, which is technically and institutionally
feasible, economically appropriate and financially affordable sanitation
option.
22
5. Simplified and Condominal Sewers
Source:
STAUFFER
(2012),
adapted
from
TILLEY
et
al.
(2008)
23. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle (TILLEY et al. 2008; SANIMAS 2005)
It consists of:
• Small-diameter pipes (e.g. 100 mm).
• Inspections chambers (for maintenance).
• Every household should have a grease trap or an other appropriate
pre-treatment facility.
• Semi-centralised treatment facility or transfer/ discharge station.
23
5. Simplified and Condominal Sewers
24. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle (TILLEY et al. 2008; SANIMAS 2005)
Sewers are laid on users property:
• Higher connection rates can be achieved.
• Fewer and shorter pipes can be used.
• Less excavation is required (reduced traffic load).
g This requires careful negotiation between stakeholders (see
stakeholder analysis), since design and maintenance must be
jointly coordinated.
24
5. Simplified and Condominal Sewers
A simplified sewer (condominal sewer)
network. Sewers are laid within property
boundaries rather than beneath central roads.
Source: EAWAG and SANDEC (2008)
25. Sewer Systems
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Costs (MARA 1996)
Costs are low (50 to 80 % less expensive than conventional sewerage)
because:
•Flatter gradients
•Shallow excavation depths
•Small diameter pipe
•Simple inspection units
g The costs for emptying interceptors and pre-settling units must be
considered!
25
5. Simplified and Condominal Sewers
26. Sewer Systems
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Operation & Maintenance (BRIKKE and BREDERO 2003)
• All greywater should be connected to ensure adequate hydraulic
loading.
• No solids should enter the system.
• The system needs to be flushed regularly.
• Interceptor tanks and pre-settlement units must be emptied
periodically
26
5. Simplified and Condominal Sewers
A typical cleanout, also called
flushingpoint (right) and a
junction without a cleanout (left).
Source: MARA (2001)
27. Sewer Systems
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Applicability (TILLEY et al. 2008; BRIKKE and BREDERO 2003)
• Appropriate for dense, urban
settlements
• If ground is rocky or the groundwater
table is high
• Can be an alternative in areas with
individual soakaways
27
5. Simplified and Condominal Sewers
Junction chamber for simplified
sewerage using larger diameter
concrete pipes, used in
Guatamala. Source: MARA and SLEIGH
(2001)
28. Sewer Systems
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28
5. Simplified and Condominal Sewers
Pros and Cons
Advantages:
• Can be built and repaired with
locally available materials
• Construction can provide short-
term employment to local
labourers
• Capital costs are between 50
and 80 % less than conventional
gravity sewers
• Operating costs are low
• Can be extended as a
community changes and grows
Disadvantages:
• Requires water for flushing
• Requires expert design
• Requires repairs and removals of
blockages more frequently than a
conventional sewer
• Effluent and sludge requires secondary
treatment
• Overflow if not maintained properly
• Blockage because of illegal connections
• Only suitable where there are
interceptor tanks, septic tanks or other
pre-treatment systems
• Requires the involvement of a well-
organised sewerage department
29. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle
Solids-free sewer systems are similar to conventional systems, but the
wastewater is pre-settled and solids removed before entering the
system, e.g.:
•Septic tanks
•Biogas settlers
•Anaerobic baffled reactor
29
6. Solids-free Sewers
Source: TILLEY et al. (2008)
The recommended pipe
diameter is 75 to 100 mm and
an depth of at lest 300 mm.
(OTIS and MARA 1985)
30. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle
If well maintained, there is little risk of clogging, thus there is no need
of self-cleansing velocity, i.e.;
•Shallow depths
•Small or even inflective gradients
•Fewer inspection points
•Can follow topography more closely
g This results in significantly lower investment costs due to the
simplified design!
30
6. Solids-free Sewers
31. Sewer Systems
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Costs (TILLEY et al. 2008)
• Solids-free sewers can be built for 20% to 50% less costs than
conventional sewerage.
• Repairs and removal of as well as costs for emptying the pre-
settling unit must be considered.
31
6. Solids-free Sewers
Costs for emptying the pre-
treatment unit must be
considered (organisation and
costs): a vacuum truck empties
a pit in Bharakpur near
Calcutta. Source: EAWAG/SANDEC (2008)
32. Sewer Systems
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Applicability
• Well suited for areas where leaching fields/soak pits are
inappropriate due to sensitive groundwater or lack of space for on-
site infiltration in growing communities.
• In areas with a high willingness to pay (for the operation and
maintenance) and with locally available expertise and resources.
• Users should receive some basic training.
32
6. Solids-free Sewers
Operation & Maintenance (TILLEY et al. 2008)
• Pre-settling unit must be maintained and emptied periodically.
• Risk of pipe clogging is relatively low.
• Sewer should be flushed once a year.
• Sewers require a constant supply of water, although less water is
needed compared to conventional sewers.
33. Sewer Systems
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33
6. Solids-free Sewers
Pros and Cons
Advantages:
• Can be built and repaired with
locally available materials
• Capital costs are less than for
conventional sewers
• Low operating costs if well
maintained
• Can be extended as a
community changes and grows
• Appropriate for densely
populated areas with sensitive
groundwater or no space for a
soak pit or leaching field
Disadvantages:
• Requires repairs and removals of
blockages more frequently than
a conventional gravity sewer
• Requires expert design and
construction supervision
• Requires education and
acceptance to be used correctly
• Effluent and sludge (from
interceptors) requires secondary
treatment and/or appropriate
discharge
34. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle
• This system is not dependent on gravity to move wastewater
• Shallow trenches and relatively small pipe diameters
• Requires permanent electricity and grinder pumps
34
7. Pressurised Sewers
A pressurised sewer
system is
independent from
land topography and
does not need deep
excavation work.
Source: ITT (n.y.)
35. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle (WERF 2010)
• Wastewater is collected by gravity in a collection tank.
• A grinder pump moves it to the sewer g this transfer of
wastewater pressurises the sewer.
• Various pumps along the sewer line move the wastewater
progressively.
35
7. Pressurised Sewers
Source: (WERF 2010)
36. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle – Pressure Sewer Unit (SHOALHAVEN n.y.)
• Generally pre-fabricated products.
• A collection tank including grinder and pump, non-return valve
(prevents backflow from the pressure sewer).
• The grinding allows small pipe diameters.
• Wired to the household power supply and regulated by a control
panel.
Alternative to this unit: a septic tank situated outside in the ground
or in the basement. Effluent flows into an underground holding
tank containing a pump and control devices from where it is then
pumped into the pressurised sewer. (U.S. EPA 2002)
36
7. Pressurised Sewers
37. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle – Pressure Sewer Unit
37
7. Pressurised Sewers
A prefabricated pressure sewer unit made out of plastic for outside placement. Source: SHOALHAVEN WATER (n.y.)
38. Sewer Systems
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Costs (WERF 2010)
Costs can be devided in two major components:
On-lot costs: pump, basin, controls, building sewer, lateral piping,
electrical service, installation
Collection network: includes all the piping in the utility easements
that directs the sewage to the treatment facility.
38
7. Pressurised Sewers
39. Sewer Systems
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Operation & Maintenance
• Regular service is important for all system components.
• Electricity needs to be available all the time.
• Pumps should be checked regularly.
• Pipe connections should be controlled for leakages.
39
7. Pressurised Sewers
Three examples of damages on pressurised piping system. Therefore it is very important to inspect and
maintain the sewer system. This avoids high repair cost, environmental damages and public health
hazard. Source: WSAA (2003)
40. Sewer Systems
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Applicability
• Basically, pressurised sewer systems have the same advantages as
vacuum sewers. Therefore they are used in similar surroundings;
• Flat or hilly topography: gravity systems demand installation at
great depths to maintain adequate flow or requires pumping and lift
stations.
• Rock layers, running sand or a high groundwater table make deep
excavation difficult.
• High groundwater table.
• Densely populated areas.
40
7. Pressurised Sewers
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41
7. Pressurised Sewers
Pros and Cons
Advantages:
• Effective wastewater
transportation at minimum
depth, minimising the
excavation for the piping system
• Gravity free; independent from
land topography
• Lower costs compared to a
conventional gravity sewer (pipe
size and depth requirements are
reduced and many small pumps
are cheaper than some large-
capacity lift stations)
• Requires little water only for
transporting the excreta
Disadvantages:
• Needs expert design, high capital
costs
• Needs a permanent energy source
• A proper recycling of nutrients and
energy becomes difficult, because all
kinds of wastes are mixed
• Unsuitability for self-help, requires
skilled engineers & operators
• It is still a flushing system which
transports wastewater away. If there
is no treatment plant and an
unprofessional discharge it can
contaminate the environment
• Leakages may lead to contaminations
42. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle
A central vacuum source conveys sewage from individual households to
a central collection station. (UNEP 2002)
42
8. Vacuum Sewers
Source: ROEDIGER (2007)
43. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle
• Use of differential air pressure (“negative pressure” or “vacuum”)
to move the sewage.
43
8. Vacuum Sewers
• A central source of power to operate vacuum pumps is required to
maintain vacuum.
Source: ROEDIGER (2007)
44. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle (PDH ENGINEER 2007)
• Use of differential air pressure (“negative pressure” or “vacuum”)
to move the sewage.
44
8. Vacuum Sewers
• A central source of power to operate vacuum pumps is required to
maintain vacuum.
Source: ROEDIGER (2007)
• At each entry point (collection chamber), an interface valve is
required to seal the lines so that vacuum can be maintained.
45. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle – Transport of Wastewater (PDH ENGINEER 2007)
1. Gravity line carries wastewater from the source to the collection
chamber.
2. When a defined height is reached, the vacuum interface valves
opens and sucks the wastewater into the vacuum sewer main.
3. At the end of this main it is collected in a big tank.
4. After this tank is filled to a predetermined level, the wastewater is
transferred to a treatment plant via a conventional/separate sewer
system.
45
8. Vacuum Sewers
46. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle - Piping
• Narrow and shallow trenches (1.0 to 1.2 m)
• Inspection points for pressure testing
• Small pipe diameter (80 to 250 mm)
• If a pipe is damaged, risk of leaking is low because of the negative
pressure.
46
8. Vacuum Sewers
Local workers at construction of
a shallow vacuum sewer system.
Source: ROEDIGER (2007)
47. Sewer Systems
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Costs
It is a high-tech system, thus it is costly. But in comparison with a
conventional sewer system, it is cheaper:
• Small Pipes (less material)
• Shallow trenches (no heavy machinery)
• Independent from topography
• Large amounts of flushing water can be saved (economical and
ecological reasonable)
g Permanent source of electrical power can increase the costs!
47
8. Vacuum Sewers
48. Sewer Systems
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Operation & Maintenance
• Risk of clogging is low; almost no cleaning/emptying
• Periodically pressure testing
• Complex and/or technical problems are in the responsibility of the
manufacturer.
48
8. Vacuum Sewers
Construction of
a sewer at the
left side and
pressure testing
et the right
side. Source: ROEDIGER
(2007)
49. Sewer Systems
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Applicability
• Flat topography: gravity systems demand installation at great
depths to maintain adequate flow (pump stations, lift stations).
• Rock layers, running sand or a high groundwater table make deep
excavation difficult.
• Areas short of water supply or poor communities that must pay for
water, but cannot afford great amounts of water necessary for
operation of gravity systems.
• Areas that are ecologically sensitive.
• Areas where flooding can occur.
• Areas with obstacles to a gravity sewer route.
• Installation of a new fresh water network, allowing sewerage pipe
installation in the same trench.
49
8. Vacuum Sewers
50. Sewer Systems
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50
8. Vacuum Sewers
Pros and Cons
Advantages:
• Requires less flushing water
• Considerable savings in
construction costs
• Shallow and narrow trenches,
small diameter pipelines,
flexible pipeline construction
• Sewers and water mains can be
laid in a common trench
• Closed systems with no leakage
or smell
• No manholes along the vacuum
sewers
• One central vacuum station can
replace several pumping stations
Disadvantages:
• Needs expert design
• Needs energy to create the
permanent vacuum
• Relatively high capital costs
• Recycling of nutrients and
energy becomes difficult
• Unsuitability for self-help,
requires skilled engineers
operators
• It is still a flushing system. If
there is no treatment plant and
an unprofessional discharge it
can contaminate the
environment
51. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle (WHO 1991)
Separately collected stormwater has high potential for increasing
agricultural production in rural areas. g The most basic way to drain
off rain and stormwater is via open channels.
•It consists of a secondary drainage system, with a network of small
drains attached (micro-drainage).
•Each serves a small catchment area that ranges from a single property
to several blocks of houses.
•The small drains bring the water to a primary drainage system,
composed of main drains (also called interceptor drains), which serve
large areas of the city.
•The main drains are generally connected with natural drainage
channels such as rivers or streams.
51
9. Open Channels and Drains
52. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle Case
‘El Gran Canal’ in Mexico City used as primary drainage system. The
water in this canal, which also transports rain and stormwater, is
heavily polluted with litter and untreated wastewater.
52
9. Open Channels and Drains
Source:
WALDWIND
(n.y.)
53. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle – Steep Terrain
A return period of 5-years is widely used to
design primary drainage systems in tropical
cities, for micro-drainage 3-year or less.
On steep terrain, uncontrolled velocities can lead
to erosion, therefore several designs exist:
a.Baffles
b.Steps
c.Checkwalls
They are all built into the drain to slow down the
water flow for unlined drains. The water
deposits silt behind each checkwall, gradually
building up a stepped drain. The checkwalls
should be buried well into the ground.
53
9. Open Channels and Drains
Source:
WHO
(1991)
§
54. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle – Flat Terrain
The central channel or “cunette” with a narrow bottom carries the
flow in dry weather and moderate rain.
The outer channel facilitates for the occasional heavy flood flow. The
outer channel floor should preferably slope gently down to the central
channel.
If not properly design or clogged g risk of puddling and mosquito
breeding
54
9. Open Channels and Drains
Source: WHO (1991)
55. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle – Transport of Wastewater
Could be a temporary solution – but is NOT a satisfactory technology:
People can easily come into contact with the wastewater, with its
potentially high pathogen content.
•If there is a storm event, flooding and spreading of pathogens and
other pollutants can occur. (WORLDBANK 2011)
•Very often open drains/channels are misused for depositing litter and
excrete. (CORCORAN et al. 2010)
•Household sewer lines are sometimes illegally connected to open
drainage systems. (CORCORAN et al. 2010)
55
9. Open Channels and Drains
56. Sewer Systems
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Costs (WHO 1991)
• Compared to underground sewer systems.
• Price depends on:
o Steep terrain (extra construction to slow down velocity)
o Flat terrain (deep or wide excavation)
o Costs for material
• Consideration of community participation could have a positive
offset on the overall costs (O&M).
• A typical value for the annual cost of maintenance would be about
8% of the construction cost of the system.
56
9. Open Channels and Drains
57. Sewer Systems
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Operation & Maintenance (WHO 1991)
The main duties and responsibilities for O&M are:
•Routine drain cleaning and repairs
•Semiannual inspection, reporting of defects and blockages
•Payment for maintenance
•Passing of by-laws regarding the use of drains
•Enforcement of by-laws.
57
9. Open Channels and Drains
Cleaning out open drains is
difficult to organise but utterly
necessary. Blockages can cause
spill-over and cause flooding. A
solution could be to cover it with
concrete slabs. Source: SANIMAS (2005)
58. Sewer Systems
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58
9. Open Channels and Drains
Open drains bear a high health risk, because water in open channels
can contain all sorts of contaminants and pathogens
•Ponding enforces mosquito breeding
•Illegal disposal of solid waste leads to clogging
•Defecation into these channels is not an unusual habit
Children tend to play in such channels
Health Aspect (WHO 1992)
Greywater from laundry (left)
and solid garbage which is
disposed in open drains (right)
pollute water and cause health
hazards. Bangalore, Nepal. Source:
BARRETO (2009)
59. Sewer Systems
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Applicability
• It can be constructed in almost all types of settlements (urban or
rural), but enough land area is required to build a reasonable
construction.
• Scheduled maintenance is necessary to prevent clogging
• In general, they bear many risk for public health
If possible, they should be applied only where an adequate wastewater
treatment and collection systems for sewage sludge as well as a
solid waste management are provided.
59
9. Open Channels and Drains
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60
9. Open Channels and Drains
Pros and Cons
Advantages:
• Low-cost drain-off solution if
drains already exist
• Simple to construct
• Construction materials are often
locally available
• Creates employment
(construction and maintenance)
Disadvantages:
• High health risk due to risk
illegal discharge of wastewaters
and solid waste
• Blockages can cause spill-over
and flooding
• Foul odour source establishment
• Breeding ground for insects and
pests
• Regular cleaning service
required to remove solids
61. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle (EESD 2003)
They are used to move wastewater to higher elevations. In general, the
need for sewer pumping stations arises when:
•The existing topography and required minimum sewer grades create
deep sewers that have high construction costs. The sewage is raised
and then conveyed by gravity.
•Basements are too low to discharge sewage to the main sewer.
•Sewage must be conveyed over a ridge.
•The sewage must be raised to get head for gravity flow through a
treatment plant.
•Discharge outlets are below the level of the receiving body of water.
•An existing gravity system is not yet available. A pumping station will
enable development and growth in accordance with the applicable
community plan.
61
10. Sewer Pumping Stations
62. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle
1. Sewage is fed into and stored in an underground pit (wet well).
2. When the level rises to a predetermined point, a pump will be
started to lift the sewage upward through a pressurised pipe
system (sewer force main or rising main).
3. From there it is discharged into a gravity manhole again.
62
10. Sewer Pumping Stations
A sewer pumping
station in Germany with
the pump shaft and the
electricity/control unit.
Source: MAW (2010)
63. Sewer Systems
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Costs
A pumping station is always in
combination with a (on-site or semi-
centralised) treatment plant and/or
a sewer system.
• High costs for construction
material, electricity,
maintenance and of course
expert design.
• Construction and installation
costs are high.
63
10. Sewer Pumping Stations
A fibreglass tank for single households with an
integrated sewage pump The sewage is pumped up to
council sewer or on site treatment plant. Source: FTM (2010)
64. Sewer Systems
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Operation & Maintenance
• The system is mostly computer- or electronically monitored.
• Sensors check the sewage level of the wet wells and start/stop the
pumps.
• The pumps and its monitoring unit should be maintained
periodically by the supplier.
• Overflows of wet wells should be avoided and it is important that
there is a treatment plant at the end of every sewer system.
64
10. Sewer Pumping Stations
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Applicability
Pumping stations become necessary as soon as sewage has to be lifted
from a lower part to a higher part.
A well constructed piping system (e.g. conventional sewer system)
and a treatment plant is necessary.
Construction material and spare parts is expensive and might be
difficult to acquire locally.
65
10. Sewer Pumping Stations
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66
10. Sewer Pumping Stations
Pros and Cons
Advantages:
• Sewage can be pumped
automatically to higher
elevations
• No contact with wastewater is
necessary
Disadvantages:
• Very costly
• Local availability of
construction material and
spare parts
• Needs expert design
67. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle (TILLEY et al. 2008)
• Transfer stations act as intermediate dumping points for faecal
sludge/blackwater when it cannot be easily transported to a
treatment facility. It is emptied by a vacuum truck.
• A sewer discharge station is directly connected to the sewer system.
67
11. Transfer and Sewer Discharge Stations
Source: TILLEY et al. (2008)
68. Sewer Systems
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Design Principle (TILLEY et al. 2008)
• The dumping point at the transfer station should be built low enough
to minimise spills when labourers are manually emptying their sludge
carts.
• It should include a vent, a trash screen to remove large debris
(garbage) and a washing facility for vehicles.
• It should be well protected and maintained to prevent random
dumping into the sewer and to ensure the safety of the users.
68
11. Transfer and Sewer Discharge Stations
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Costs (TILLEY et al. 2008)
The moderate capital costs may be offset with access permits and the
construction and maintenance can create local income.
The system for issuing permits or charging access fees must be
carefully designed so that those who most need the service are not
excluded because of high costs.
Costs for maintenance, observation and operation of the facility must
be considered.
69
11. Transfer and Sewer Discharge Stations
70. Sewer Systems
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Operation & Maintenance (TILLEY et al. 2008)
• Racks (screens) must be cleaned frequently.
• Sand and grit must be periodically removed.
• The pad and loading area should be cleaned regularly to minimise
odours.
• Sludge from transfer or sewer discharge stations is treated in an
appropriate secondary treatment facility and not be illegally dumped.
70
11. Transfer and Sewer Discharge Stations
If there is no opportunity to dispose sludge, disposal sites
which are unhygienic and hazardous for local residents
are often the only solution. Source: SuSanA on Flickr (2011)
71. Sewer Systems
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Applicability (TILLEY et al. 2008)
• Especially appropriate for dense, urban areas where there is no
alternative discharge point.
• For a sewer discharge station, a connection to a sewer main must be
possible.
• The site for the transfer station should be easily accessible,
conveniently located, and easy to use.
• A proper legal and institutional framework is required as well.
71
11. Transfer and Sewer Discharge Stations
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72
11. Transfer and Sewer Discharge Stations
Pros and Cons (TILLEY et al. 2008)
Advantages:
• May reduce illegal dumping of
faecal sludge
• Moderate capital and operation
costs
• Potential for local job creation
and income generation
• Reduces transport distance and
may encourage more
community-level emptying
solutions
Disadvantages:
• Requires expert design and
construction supervision
• May cause blockages and disrupt
sewer flow (sewer discharge
station)
• Sludge requires secondary
treatment and/or appropriate
discharge
• Requires an institutional framework
taking care of access fees,
connection to sewers or regular
emptying and maintenance
• Requires expert design and
construction supervision
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73
8. References
BRIKKE, F.; BREDERO, M. (2003): Linking Technology Choice with Operation and Maintenance in the context of community water
supply and sanitation. A reference Document for Planners and Project Staff. Geneva: World Health Organization and IRC Water
and Sanitation Centre. URL: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/om/wsh9241562153/en/ [Accessed:
30.03.2010]
CORCORAN, E. (Editor); NELLEMANN, C. (Editor); BAKER, E. (Editor); BOS, R. (Editor); OSBORN, D. (Editor); SAVELLI, H. (Editor)
(2010): Sick Water? The central role of wastewater management in sustainable development. A Rapid Response Assessment.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), UN-HABITAT, GRID-Arendal. URL:
http://www.grida.no/publications/rr/sickwater/ [Accessed: 05.05.2010]
EAWAG/SANDEC (Editor) (2008): Faecal Sludge Management. Lecture Notes. Duebendorf: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic
Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC). URL:
http://www.susana.org/images/documents/07-cap-dev/c-training-uni-courses/available-training-courses/sandec-
tool/05_fsm/index_05.htm [Accessed: 23.05.2012]
EAWAG/SANDEC (Editor) (2008): Sanitation Systems and Technologies. Lecture Notes . Duebendorf: Swiss Federal Institute of
Aquatic Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (SANDEC).
ITT (Editor) (n.y.): Flygt Pressurized Sewage Systems - For homeowners, residential associations and professionals. Sundbyberg:
ITT Water & Wastewater. URL: ITT (Editor) (n.y.): Flygt Pressurized Sewage Systems - For homeowners, residential associations
and professionals. Sundbyberg: ITT Water & Wastewater. URL [Accessed: 06.06.2011]. PDF [Accessed: 06.06.2011]
LADEN, B. (Editor) (2010): No more overloaded sewer systems. Copenhagen: Information Center for Climate Change Adaptation,
Danish Ministry of Climate and Energy, Danish Energy Agency. URL: http://www.klimatilpasning.dk/en-
us/service/cases/sider/nomoreoverloadedsewer.aspx [Accessed: 04.01.2011]
MARA, D. (1996): Low-cost Sewerage. Leeds: University of Leeds. URL:
http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/Sewerage/articles/WHO_EOS_98.5_pp249-262.pdf [Accessed: 10.01.2011]
MARA, D.; SLEIGH, A. (2001): PC Based Simplified Sewer Design. Leeds: University of Leeds. URL:
http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/Sewerage/sewerage_index.html [Accessed: 13.01.2011]
MAW (Editor) (2010): Anlagen zur Abwasserbeseitigung. Dillenburg: Maschinen und Anlagen für die Wasserwirtschaft GmbH (MAW).
URL: http://www.maw-dillenburg.de/pages/abwasserbeseitigung.php [Accessed: 03.03.2011]
74. Sewer Systems
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74
8. References
PHADKE, S. (2009): Poo. Pune: Aman Setu Publication. http://www.susana.org/lang-
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76. Sewer Systems 76
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