Specific Learning Disabilities

1. Specific Learning Disabilities

2. • Normal Intelligence Range
• Terminology established in 1963 by Sam
Kirk
• Causation varied (minimal brain injury,
perceptual disorders, IQ-achievement
discrepancy, environmental, etc.)

3. Federal Definition of
Specific Learning Disabilities

4. The majority of states use a definition based
on the definition of the federal government.
This definition, first signed into law in
1977, was—with few minor wording
changes—adopted again in 1997 by the
federal government:
Federal Definition

5. A. GENERAL—The long term “specific
learning disability” means a disorder in
one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in
using language, spoken or written, which
disorder may manifest itself in an
imperfect ability to listen, think, speak,
read, write, spell, or do mathematical
calculations
Federal Definition

6. B. DISORDERS INCLUDED—Such term
includes such conditions as perceptual
disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain
dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental
aphasia
Federal Definition

7. C. DISORDERS NOT INCLUDED—Such
term does not include a learning problem
that is primarily the result of visual,
hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental
retardation, of emotional disturbance, or
of environmental, cultural, or economic
disadvantage.
Federal Definition

8. Prevalence—Learning Disabilities
• 5 – 6% of students ages 6 to 17 are learning
disabled
• Learning disabilities is the largest category
in special education

9. Although the testing practices of today
differ markedly from those of 4,000 years
ago, when formal testing was first
introduced, the premise has remained very
much the same, to distinguish those who
are successful at solving problems from
those who are not.
Assessment of Intelligence
Brilliant
Smart
Average
Less Able
Able

10. The first effective test of intellectual
ability was devised in the early
1900s by French psychologists
Alfred Binet, Victor Henri, and
Theodore Simon.
Binet and Simon went to great
lengths to differentiate between the
concepts of natural intelligence and
acquired intelligence. They were
interested in measuring one’s
capacity to learn rather than simply
knowledge gained through
instruction.
The Influence of Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet

11. The Influence of David Wechsler
David Wechsler’s (1896-1981)
influence on assessment in the
schools has been profound.
The Wechsler scales are a series of
three individually administered
intelligence tests, modeled after one
another, in which a person’s
intellectual abilities are described
using a verbal/motor framework.
The Wechsler scales have provided
the preferred vehicle for the
identification and classification of
countless school-age children for
nearly half a century.
David Wechsler

12. Curriculum-Based Assessment
Curriculum-Based Assessment
(CBA) is a type of performance
assessment that is widely used in
special education. CBA strengthens
the connection between assessment
and instructors by evaluating the
student in terms of the curricular
requirements of the student’s own
school or classroom. For example,
if the student is expected to spell
certain words in the classroom, the
assessment measures the student’s
performance on those words.

13. Criterion-Referenced Tests
Criterion-referenced tests measure a student’s mastery of
specific skills. For example, does the pupil recognize –ing
endings? Does the student know the meaning of the prefix dis-?
Can the student subtract single-digit numbers through 10?
The teacher can set an acceptable criterion for mastery, such as
90 percent. When that performance level is reached, the
student is taught the next skill in the sequence.
Criterion-referenced tests describe rather than compare
performance, measuring mastery levels rather than grade
levels.

14. Formal Standardized Tests
norm-referenced
 The test is usually available in more than one form so that a student can be
examined more than once without obtaining a high score due to practice.
 The test is accompanied by a manual giving directions for administration,
scoring and interpretation.
 The manual contains grade norms, age norms, and possibly percentile ranks or
some form of scaled scores.
The manual has information on validity (the degree to which the test measures
what it is supposed to measure). The manual also shows reliability (consistency
or similarity of performance). A reliability coefficient of 0.90 indicates that if the
test were given to the student again, it is 90 percent likely that the student would
obtain a score in the same range.

15. General Reading Tests
• California Achievement Tests: Reading
• Gates-MacGintie Reading Tests
• Metropolitan Achievement Tests: Reading
• SRA Achievement Series: Reading
• Stanford Achievement Test: Reading
Commonly Used Academic Tests

16. Diagnostic Reading Tests
• Analytic Reading Inventory
• DARTTS (Diagnostic
Assessment of Reading with
Trial Lessons)
• Diagnostic Reading Inventory
• Gates-McKillop-Horowitz
Reading Diagnostic Tests
• Stanford Diagnostic Reading
Test
• Test of Reading Comprehension
(TORC)
• Woodcock Reading Mastery
Tests--Revised
Commonly Used Academic Tests

17. Comprehensive Batteries of Academic Tests
• California Achievement Tests
• Iowa Tests of Basic Skills
• Metropolitan Achievement Tests
• SRA Achievement Series
• Stanford Achievement Test
• Wide-Range Achievement Test—III (WRAT-III)
Commonly Used Academic Tests

18. Diagnostic Academic Tests and Test Batteries
• Brigance Diagnostic
Comprehensive Inventory of Basic
Skill
• Kaufman Test of Educational
Achievement (K-TEA)
• Key Math--Revised
• Peabody Individual Achievement
Test—Revised (PIAT-R)
• Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics
Test
• Test of Written Spelling—2
• Woodcock-Johnson
Psychoeducational Battery—
Revised: Achievement Tests
Commonly Used Academic Tests

19. Language Tests
• Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation
• Houston Test for Language Development
• Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
• Test of Adolescent Language—2 (TOAL-2)
• Test of Language Development—2 (TOLD-2)
• Test of Language Development—2 Primary
• Test of Written Language—2 (TOWL-2)
• Test of Auditory Comprehension of Language--Revised
Commonly Used Academic Tests

20. Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children
Each child shall have a multifactored evaluation for initial
placement that includes, but is not necessarily limited to,
evaluations in the following areas:
+ =
1. General intelligence as determined through a measure
of cognitive functioning administered by a qualified
psychologist using a test designed for individual
administration;
Brilliant
Smart
Average
Less Able
Able

21. 2. Academic Performance as measured through the use of
standardized tests designed for individual administration which
must include evaluation in the areas of:
Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children
Basic Reading Skills
Reading Comprehension
Mathematic Calculation
Mathematics Reasoning

22. 3. Vision, hearing, and motor abilities;
Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children
Vision
Hearing
Motor Abilities

23. 4. Communicative status, which must include
assessments in the areas of:
Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children
Listening Comprehension
Oral Expression
Written Expression

24. 5. Social and emotional status
Eligibility for Specific Learning Disabled Children
Familial Affection Happy
Love/Hate Relationships
Nonplussed
Gregarious

25. Methods of Obtaining Assessment Information
Formal Tests
Case history/interview
Observation
Informal Measures
Tom’s Portfolio

26. Alternative or Informal Assessment
•Authentic/performance assessment
•Teacher-made tests
•Portfolio assessment
•Dynamic assessment
•Diagnostic teaching
•Curriculum-based assessment
•Rating scales
•Criterion-referenced tests

27. Formal Standardized Tests
These tests are also called norm-referenced because their scores
are derived from their administration to a large group of children.
1. The test is usually available in more than one
form so that a student can be examined more than
once without obtaining a high score due to practice.
E=MC2
E=M2
C
E2
=CM
CE2
=M
MCE2
=?
ME2
=C

28. Formal Standardized Tests
2. The test is accompanied by a manual giving directions for:
Administration
Scoring
Interpretation

29. Formal Standardized Tests
3. The manual contains:
Grade Norms
Age Norms
%Percentile Ranks or some form of Scaled Scores

30. Formal Standardized Tests
4. The manual has information on validity (the degree to which the
test measures what it is supposed to measure). A reliability
coefficient of 0.90 indicates that if the test were given to the
student again, it is 90 percent likely that the student would obtain a
score in the same range.
80%
84%
81%

31. Adequacy of Formal Tests Used in Learning Disabilities
The integrity of formal tests is judged on:
Validity
Does the test measure what it claims to measure?
Reliability
Are the test results consistent?
Standardization
On what group was the test
standardized?
=
Manipulation Rate of Puppets over 5 years
=

32. Tests of Mental Abilities and Mental Processes
Commonly used individual intelligence tests that are
typically administered by psychologists are the WISC-III
(Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- Third Edition),
the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, - Fourth Edition, and
the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC).
The purpose of general intelligence tests is to assess the
global aspects of intellectual ability. These tests provide
information about the student’s aptitude for learning and
specific cognitive attributes.

33. WISC-III Verbal Tests
These tests use oral language for administration and student
responses. Their descriptions follow.
Information: In this test, the examiner orally presents a series of
questions about common event; objects, places; and people. The child’s
answers indicate knowledge about this common information.
What does the
statue of liberty
stand for?
Freedom and
Justice for
All?

34. WISC-III Verbal Tests
Similarities: In this test, the examiner orally presents a series of pairs of
words. The child explains the similarity of the common objects or
concepts the words represent.
What do an
apple and an
orange have in
common?
They are
both
fruits?

35. WISC-III Verbal Tests
Arithmetic: This test is a series of orally presented arithmetic problems.
The child mentally solves the problems and responds orally.
9?

36. WISC-III Verbal Tests
Vocabulary: This test is a series of orally presented words. The child
orally defines the words.
Pencil
Hand-Held Mechanical
Inscriber?

37. WISC-III Verbal Tests
Comprehension: This is a series of orally presented questions.
Formulating the answer requires the child to solve everyday problems or
to understand social rules and concepts.
Open it to see if someone
sent cash in the mail?
What would you do
if you found a
stamped envelope
lying on the ground?

38. WISC-III Verbal Tests
Digit Span: This test is a series of orally presented number sequences.
The child must repeat verbatim the number sequences for digits forward
and in reverse order for digits backwards.
1, 3, 5, 7, 234
1,3, 5, 7, #%@&!

39. WISC-III Performance Tests
These tests are presented visually, and the subjects respond by
performing some task. Their descriptions follow.
Picture Completion: This test consists of a set of colorful pictures of
common objects and scenes, each of which is missing an important part.
The child identifies the missing part.
An eyelet to the shoe is missing!

40. WISC-III Performance Tests
Coding: This test consists of a series of simple shapes (Coding A) or
numbers (Coding B), each paired with a simple symbol. The child is
required to draw the symbol in its corresponding shape (Coding A) or
under its corresponding number(Coding B) according to a key.
24 1
2 1 4

41. WISC-III Performance Tests
Picture Arrangement: This is a set of colorful pictures presented in a
mixed-up order. The child rearranges the pictures into a logical story
sequence.
Man Riding Bicycle Man gets in Accident Man receives medical assistance

42. WISC-III Performance Tests
Block Design: This test consists of a set of modeled or printed two-
dimensional geometric patterns. The child replicates the patterns using
two-color cubes.

43. WISC-III Performance Tests
Object Assembly: This is a set of puzzles of common objects, each
presented in a standardized configuration. The child assembles the
puzzle parts to form a meaningful whole.

44. WISC-III Performance Tests
Symbol Search: This is a series of paired groups of symbols, each pair
consisting of a target group and a search group. The child scans the two
groups and indicates whether a target symbol appears in the search
group.
Target Group Search Group

45. WISC-III Performance Tests
Mazes: This test, printed in a response booklet, is a set of increasingly
difficult mazes. The child solves the maze using a pencil.

46. Diagnostic Academic Tests and Test Batteries
•Brigance Diagnostic Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skill
•Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA)
•Key Math- Revised
•Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery- Revised:
Achievement Tests
•Peabody Individual Achievement Test- Revised (PIAT-R)