Learning disabilities refer to neurological disorders that can affect areas such as reading, writing, and mathematics. They are caused by impairments in processes like language processing, memory, attention, and executive functions. Specific learning disabilities include dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia which impact reading, writing, and math abilities respectively. Neuroimaging research shows differences in brain structure and activity in regions associated with these skills in individuals with learning disabilities compared to typical peers. Genetics and biological factors during pregnancy may also contribute to increased risk. Early identification and specialized instruction targeting areas of difficulty can help individuals with learning disabilities achieve academic success.

1. LEARNING DISABILITIES
1
Prepared by: MADILYN C. ONDOY, PhD

2. • refer to a number of disorders, which may affect the acquisition,
organization, retention, understanding, or use of verbal or nonverbal
information. These disorders affect learning in individuals who
otherwise demonstrate at least average abilities essential for thinking
and/or reasoning.
2

3. • result from impairments in one or more processes related to
perceiving, thinking, remembering, or learning. These include, but
are not limited to language processing, phonological processing,
visual spatial processing, processing speed, memory and attention,
and executive functions (e.g., planning and decision making).
3

4. Learning disabilities range in severity and may
interfere with the acquisition and use of one or
more of the following:
• reading (e.g., decoding, phonetic knowledge, word recognition,
comprehension);
• • written language (e.g., spelling and written expression); and
• • mathematics (e.g., computation, problem solving)
4

5. •Learning disabilities may also involve
difficulties with organizational skill, social
perception, social interaction, and
perspective taking.
5

6. which they are expressed may vary over an
individual’s lifetime, depending on the
interaction between the demands of the
environment and the individual’s strengths and
needs.
Learning disabilities are suggested by unexpected
academic under-achievement or achievement which
is maintained only by unusually high levels of effort
and support.
6

7. • Learning disabilities are due to genetic and/or neurobiological
factors or injury that alter brain functioning in a manner which affect
one or more processes related to learning. These disorders are not
due primarily to hearing and/or vision problems, socio-economic
factors, cultural or linguistic differences, lack of motivation, or
ineffective teaching, although these factors may further complicate
the challenges faced by individuals with learning disabilities.
• Learning disabilities may co-exist with various conditions including
attentional, behavioral, and emotional disorders, sensory
impairments, or other medical conditions.
7

8. • For success, individuals with learning disabilities
require early identification and timely specialized
assessments and interventions involving home,
school, community, and workplace settings. The
interventions need to be appropriate for each
individual’s learning disability subtype and, at a
minimum, include the provision of:
• specific skill instruction;
• accommodations;
• compensatory strategies; and
• self-advocacy skills.
8

9. • Individuals with a learning disability may experience difficulties with
auditory processing, visual processing and/or motor skills, attending,
and remembering information. Social interactions and relationships
may also be negatively impacted by a learning disability.
9

10. 10

11. 1. Reading Disability
• demonstrates difficulties in reading skills
that are unexpected in relation to age,
cognitive ability, quantity and quality of
instruction, and intervention.
11

12. Reading disability may be characterized by:
• difficulties in single word reading;
• initial difficulties decoding or sounding out words;
• difficulties reading sight words;
• insufficient phonological processing; that is, the understanding that
sentences are comprised of words, words are made up of syllables,
and syllables are made up of individual sounds or phonemes;
• expressive or receptive language difficulties; and
• difficulties with comprehension
12

13. • For students with a reading
disability, the reading difficulties
are persistent. Even though an
individual’s reading ability may
eventually reach an acceptable
performance, it often continues
to be characterized by a slower
reading rate.
13

14. 2. Written Expression Disorder
• difficulties in using writing to communicate meaning.
• trouble formulating sentences, organizing paragraphs, using
• correct grammar and punctuation.
• difficulty generating ideas to write about and can be slow to get their
thoughts on paper.
• writing may be disorganized and incoherent and may display excessively
poor handwriting.
• ability to spell is often poorly developed. The difficulties in written
expression
• significantly interfere with academic achievement or with daily living
activities that require writing skills
14

15. 3. Mathematics Disorder
• problems with the language component of mathematics:
understanding concepts, decoding written problems into
mathematical symbols, and following a sequence of steps.
• have a difficult time recalling and understanding basic facts and often
cannot remember the multiplication tables despite spending hours
trying to memorize them.
• Reading mathematical signs and copying numbers or figures correctly
may be difficult for these students. They may also have difficulties
with direction and orientation
15

16. 4. Nonverbal Learning Disability
16

17. • During the school years, a child
with nonverbal disability may
e x p e r i e n c e d i f f i c u l t y i n
mathematics, science, printing
and writing, logical ordering
and sequencing, organizing
information, and nonverbal
social skills.
17

18. Teachers can support students with a
nonverbal disability by
• breaking down complex tasks into steps;
• providing visual organizers that outline material to be covered;
• providing schedules and notifying students when there are changes;
• using discussion formats rather than lectures;
• assisting students to interpret social cues such as facial expressions
and tones of voice; and preparing students for transitions
18

19. •Neurobiological Differences
•Genetic Factors
•Other Risk Factors
19

20. 1. Neurobiological Differences
• There are subtle structural and functional brain differences in individuals with
learning disabilities.
• The parieto-temporal system and Broca’s area are located on the left side and
the front of the brain respectively. These areas are linked to analyzing words and
linking sounds to letters. Beginning readers and people with a reading disability
show most activity in these areas.
• As readers become fluent, they show most activity in the occipito-temporal
system located at the back of the brain. This area is a hub of activity, receiving
information about how a word looks, how it sounds, and what it means. It allows
readers to decode automatically, which is necessary for fluency.
• Those with reading disabilities demonstrate a pattern of underactivity in this area
of the brain. This is true for people with reading disabilities of all languages and
all ages.
20

21. Human Brain Anatomy
21

22. • Frontal lobe. The largest lobe of the brain, located in
the front of the head, the frontal lobe is involved in
personality characteristics, decision-making and
movement. Recognition of smell usually involves parts
of the frontal lobe. The frontal lobe contains Broca’s
area, which is associated with speech ability.
• Parietal lobe. The middle part of the brain, the parietal
lobe helps a person identify objects and understand
spatial relationships (where one’s body is compared
with objects around the person). The parietal lobe is
also involved in interpreting pain and touch in the body.
The parietal lobe houses Wernicke’s area, which helps
the brain understand spoken language.
• Occipital lobe. The occipital lobe is the back part of the
brain that is involved with vision.
• Temporal lobe. The sides of the brain, temporal lobes
are involved in short-term memory, speech, musical
rhythm and some degree of smell recognition.
22

23. 23

24. Children with autism spectrum disorder show less
interest and attraction for social stimuli, have a
lower tendency to participate in social activities in
collaboration with other children, have a deficit in
reciprocal social interaction and find social
situations less pleasant than children of the same
age and intelligence quotient who do not have
autism.
Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have
morphological and functional alterations in their brain
connections
24

25. • Disabilities are thought to be
influenced by genetic factors.
• Learning disabilities may run in
families. Parents of a student
with a learning disability may
indicate that they had similar
learning patterns in school.
However, it is important to
remember that a parent ’s
learning disability may manifest
differently in the child.
25

26. Other Risk Factors
• include problems during pregnancy
caused by the use of tobacco, alcohol,
and/or other drugs.
• Mothers who smoke may be more
likely to have low birth weight babies
who may be at risk for a variety of
p ro b l e m s . A l co h o l a n d d r u g s
consumed by a mother during
pregnancy transfer directly to the
fetus. Environmental toxins are also
being investigated as possible causes
of learning disabilities
26

27. Learning disabilities have a neurological basis, and must be differentiated
from normal variations in academic attainment and difficulties due to:
• lack of opportunity;
• incorrect instruction;
• cultural factors; impoverished or chaotic living environment; or
• • disruptive behaviors.
27

28. Learning disabilities are also not due primarily
to:
• sensory impairment (visual or hearing);
• physical challenges (motor);
• cognitive disabilities;
• emotional disturbance;
• environmental influence (environmental disadvantage); or
• cultural or language differences.
28

29. Skill Areas Associated with Learning
Disabilities
29

30. 30

31. 31

32. 32

33. 33

34. 34

35. 35

36. 36

37. 37

38. 38

39. 39