special education

Thisresearchis a compilationof topicsinSpecial Educationwithrespecttothe prescribed syllabus in Special Topics 2 with
Outcomes-based Education
Special Education Programs are designed for
those students who are mentally, physically, socially and/or
emotionally delayed. This aspect of “delay,” broadly
categorized as a developmental delay, signifies an aspect
of the child's overall development (physical, cognitive,
scholastic skills) which places them behind their peers. Due
to these special requirements, students’ needs cannot be
met within the traditional classroom environment. Special
Education programs and services adapt content, teaching
methodology and delivery instruction to meet the
appropriate needs of each child. These services are of no
cost to the family and are available to children until they
reach 21 years of age. (States have services set in place for
adults who are in need of specialized services after age 21.)
The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) defines Special
Education as “specially designed instruction, at no cost to
the parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a
disability,” but still, what exactly is Special Education?
Often met with an ambiguous definition, the umbrella
term of Special Education broadly identifies the academic,
physical, cognitive andsocial-emotional instructionoffered
to children who are faced with one or more disabilities.
Under the IDEA, these disabilities are categorized into the
following areas:
 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Autism Spectrum Disorder refers to a developmental
disability that significantly affects communication (both
verbal and nonverbal) and social interaction. These
symptoms are typically evident before the age of three and
adversely affect a child’s educational performance. Other
identifying characteristics of those with ASD are
engagement in repetitive activities/stereotyped
movements, resistance to change in environment and daily
routine and unusual responses to sensory stimuli.
 Multiple disabilities
Children with multiple disabilities are those with
concomitant impairments such as intellectual disability +
blindness or intellectual disability + orthopedic
impairment(s). This combination causes severe
educational needs that cannot be met through programs
designed for children with a single impairment. (Deaf-
blindness is not identified as a multiple disability and is
outlined separately by IDEA.)
 Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
Traumatic brain injury refers to an acquired injury to the brain
caused by external physical forces. This injury is one that
results in a partial or complete functional disability and/or
psychosocial impairment and must adversely affect the child’s
educational performance. TBI does not include congenital or
degenerative conditions or those caused by birth-related
trauma.
TBI applies to injuries that result in impairments in one or
more of the following areas:
o Cognition
o Reasoning
o Psychosocial
behavior
o Language
o Abstract
thinking
o Physical
functions
o Memory
o Judgment
o Information
processing
o Attention
o Problem-
solving
o Speech
 Speech/language impairment
Speech or language impairments refer to communications
disorders such as stuttering, impaired articulation or
language/voice impairments that have an adverse effecton
a child’s educational performance.
 Intellectual Disability (also referred to as “Mental
Retardation”)
Intellectual disability is defined as a significantly below
average functioning of overall intelligence that exists
alongside deficits in adaptive behavior and is manifested
during the child’s developmental period causing adverse
effects on the child’s educational performance.
 Visual Impairment (including Blindness)
Visual impairment, which includes blindness, refers to
impairment in one’s vision that, even after correction,
adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The
term “visual impairment” is inclusive of those with partial
sight and blindness.
 Deaf; Hearing Impairment
Deafness means a child’s hearing impairment is so severe
that it impactsthe processingof linguistic information with
or without amplification and adversely affects a child’s
educational performance. Hearing impairment refers to an
impairment (fluctuating or permanent) that adversely
affects a child’s educational performance.
 Deaf-Blindness
Deaf-blindness refers to concomitant visual and hearing
impairments. This combination causes severe
communication, developmental and educational needs
that cannot be accommodated through special education

programs solely for those children with blindness or
deafness.
 Developmental Delay
Developmental delay is a term designated for children
birth to age nine, and is defined as a delay in one or more
of the following areas: cognitive development, physical
development, socio-emotional development, behavioral
development or communication.
 Emotional Disturbance
Emotional disturbance refers to a condition that exhibits
one or more of the following characteristics both over an
extended period of time and to an exceptional degree that
adversely affects a child’s educational performance:
o An inability to learn that cannot be explained by
intellectual, sensory or health factors
o An inability to build and/or maintain satisfactory
interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers
o Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal
circumstances
o A general pervasive mood of unhappiness/depression
o A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears
associated with personal or school problems
Emotional disturbance does not apply to children who are
socially maladjusted unless they are determined to have an
emotional disturbance as per IDEA’s regulations.
 Specific Learning Disability
Specific learning disability refers to a range of disorders in
which one or more basic psychological processes involved
in the comprehensive/usage of language — both spoken or
written — establishes an impairment in one’s ability to
listen, think, read, write, spell and/or complete
mathematical calculations. Included are conditions such as
perceptual disabilities, dyslexia (also dyscalculia,
dysgraphia), brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction and
developmental aphasia. Specific learning disabilities do not
include learning problems that are the result of visual,
auditory or motor disabilities, intellectual disability,
emotional disturbance or those who are placed at an
environmental/economic disadvantage.
 Orthopedic Impairment
Orthopedic impairment(s) refer to severe orthopedic
impairments that adversely affect a child’s academic
performance. Orthopedic impairment(s) include those
caused by congenital anomalies and diseases, as well
impairments by other causes (i.e. Cerebral Palsy).
 Other Health Impairment(s)
Other health impairments refer to a limitation in strength,
vitality or alertness, resulting in limited alertness to one’s
educational environment. These impairments are often
due to chronic or acute health problems — including
ADD/ADHD, epilepsy, and Tourette’s syndrome — and
adversely affect the child’s educational performance.
In order to be deemed eligible for state Special Education
services, IDEA states that a student’s disability must
adversely affect his or her academic achievement and/or
overall educational performance. While defining these
adverse effects are dependent on a student’s categorical
disability, eligibility is determined through a process of
evaluations by professionals such as a child’s
pediatrician/specialists, school psychologists and social
workers. After a student is deemed able to receive such
services, their progress is annually reviewed.
http://teach.com/what-is-special-education
What is Special Needs Education?
Special Education is “specially” designed instruction to
meet the unique needs and abilities of exceptional
students.
http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/COPs/N
ews_documents/2007/0711Tivat/History_Inclusive_Educati
on.pdf
I - The Exceptional Children
1. Terminologies to Describe
Disability is the consequence of an impairment that may
be physical, cognitive, mental, sensory, emotional,
developmental, or some combination of these. A disability
may be present from birth, or occur during a person's
lifetime.
Physical disability is any impairment which limits the
physical function of limbs, fine bones, or gross motor
ability is a physical impairment, not necessarily a physical
disability. The social model of disability defines physical
disability as manifest when impairment meets a non-
universal design or program, e.g. a person who cannot
climb stairs may have a physical impairment of the knees
when putting stress on them from an elevated position
such as with climbing or descending stairs. If an elevator
was provided, or a building had services on the first floor,
this impairment would not become a disability. Other

physical disabilities include impairments which limit other
activities of daily living, such as severe sleep disorders.
Sensory disability is impairment of one of the senses. The
term is used primarily to refer to vision and hearing
impairment, but other senses can be impaired.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability
Disability is the loss or limitation of opportunities to take
part in society on an equal level with others due to social
and environmental barriers. http://disability-
studies.leeds.ac.uk/files/library/Northern-Officers-Group-
defining-impairment-and-disability.pdf
Disability is thus not just a health problem. It is a complex
phenomenon, reflecting the interaction between features
of a person’s body and features of the society in which he
or she lives. Overcoming the difficulties faced by people
with disabilities requires interventions to remove
environmental and social barriers.
People with disabilities have the same health needs as non-
disabled people – for immunization, cancer screening etc.
They also may experience a narrower margin of health,
both because of poverty and social exclusion, and also
because they may be vulnerable to secondary conditions,
such as pressure sores or urinary tract infections. Evidence
suggests that people with disabilities face barriers in
accessing the health and rehabilitation services they need
in many settings. http://www.who.int/topics/disabilities/en/
Handicap is a race or contest in which an artificial
advantage is given or disadvantage imposed on a
contestant to equalize chances of winning.
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/handicap
Handicapped person is a person who has some condition
that markedly restricts their ability to function physically or
mentally or socially.
Amnesiac, amnesic - a person suffering from amnesia
Aphasic - someone affected by aphasia or inability to use
or understand language
Hemiplegic - a person who has hemiplegia (is paralyzed on
one side of the body)
Paralytic - a person suffering from paralysis
Paraplegic - a personwhohas paraplegia (is paralyzed from
the waist down)
Quadriplegic - a person who is paralyzed in both arms and
both legs
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/handicapped+person
Impairment is an injury, illness, or congenital condition
that causes or is likely to cause a loss or difference of
physiological or psychological function. http://disability-
studies.leeds.ac.uk/files/library/Northern-Officers-Group-
defining-impairment-and-disability.pdf.
Visionimpairment (or "visual impairment") is vision loss of
a person to such a degree as to qualify as an additional
support need through a significant limitation of visual
capability resulting from either disease, trauma, or
congenital or degenerative conditions that cannot be
corrected by conventional means, such as refractive
correction, medication, or surgery. This functional loss of
vision is typically defined to manifest with
1. best corrected visual acuity of less than 20/60, or
significant central field defect,
2. significant peripheral field defect including
homonymous or heteronymous bilateral visual,
field defect or generalized contraction or
constriction of field, or
3. Reduced peak contrast sensitivity with either of
the above conditions.
Hearing impairment or hard of hearing or deafness refers
to conditions in which individuals are fully or partially
unable to detect or perceive at least some frequencies of
sound which can typically be heard by most people. Mild
hearing loss may sometimes not be considered a disability.
Olfactory andgustatory impairment is the Impairment of
the sense of smell and taste are commonly associated with
aging but can also occur in younger people due to a wide
variety of causes.
There are various olfactory disorders:
Anosmia – inability to smell
Dysosmia – things do not smell as they "should"
Hyperosmia – an abnormally acute sense of smell
Hyposmia – decreased ability to smell
Olfactory Reference Syndrome – psychological disorder
which causes patients to imagine they have strong body
odor
Parosmia – things smell worse than they should
Phantosmia – "hallucinated smell", often unpleasant in
nature
Complete loss of the sense of taste is known as ageusia,
while dysgeusia is persistent abnormal sense of taste,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability
Disorders are an illness that causes disruption to the
functionsofa person.It can be defined as a blip in the usual
functioning of a person. Essentially, disorder is any ailment
that disturbs the health of a person. Disorders hinder a
person’s performance and diminish his/her efficiency.
Disorders appear trivial at the onset, but they often grow
insidiously in a person. Many times a disorder can’t be
detected in time, as a result of which, a simple disorder
metamorphoses into a disability. When it comes to
disorders, the most popular and commonly associated
term is brain disorder. This is because brain disorders are
very complex in nature, and quite intriguing to the faculty
of psychological studies, because they often demand a
remedy that is a departure from normal ways or
techniques. Disorder is often associated with mental
competency.
http://www.differencebetween.info/difference-between-
disability-and-disorder

At-Risk is often used to describe students or groups of
students who are considered to have a higher probability
of failing academically or dropping out of school. The term
may be applied to students who face circumstances that
could jeopardize their ability to complete school, such as
homelessness, incarceration, teenage pregnancy, serious
health issues, domestic violence, transiency (as in the case
of migrant-worker families), or other conditions, or it may
refer to learning disabilities, low test scores, disciplinary
problems, grade retentions, or other learning-related
factors that could adversely affect the educational
performance and attainment of some students. While
educators often use the term at-risk to refer to general
populations or categories of students, they may also apply
the term toindividual studentswho have raised concerns—
based on specific behaviors observed over time—that
indicate they are more likely to fail or drop out.
http://edglossary.org/at-risk/
Developmental Delay is one of the most frequent
problems we see in the Division of Pediatric Neurology.
Such delays are often quite specific, selectively affecting
one or more of the following: motor skills (large and small);
language (expressive and receptive); cognition (general
intelligence); learning (including reading, writing and
mathematics); attention (including ADHD); memory; and
behavior and emotional functioning (including autism). In
other instances, a child’s developmental delay may be
more global.
There are many, diverse causes for such delays, and proper
diagnosis and treatment demands a high level of clinical
expertise. Every physician in the Division of Pediatric
Neurology at Boston Medical Center is expert in
conducting such evaluations and then formulating an
optimal and individualized treatment plan. With such
children, we frequently draw upon the many resources at
Boston Medical Center, enlisting the collaboration of other
health care professionals and the most up-to date
technologies, ensuring that we provide maximal assistance
to every child whom we evaluate for developmental delay.
http://www.bmc.org/pediatrics-
neurology/services/developmentdelays.htm
Developmental Delay is when your child does not reach
their developmental milestones at the expected times. It is
an ongoing major or minor delay in the process of
development. If your child is temporarily lagging behind,
that is not called developmental delay. Delay can occur in
one or many areas—for example, gross or fine motor,
language, social, or thinking skills.
Developmental Delay is most often a diagnosis made by a
doctor based on strict guidelines. Usually, though, the
parent is the first to notice that their child is not
progressing at the same rate as other children the same
age. If you think your child may be “slow,” or “seems
behind,” talk with your child's doctor about it. In some
cases, your pediatrician might pick up a delay during an
office visit. It will probably take several visits and possibly a
referral to a developmental specialist to be sure that the
delay is not just a temporary lag. Your child's doctor may
use a set of screening tools during regular well-child visits.
The first three years of a child's life are an amazing time of
development...
...and whathappensduringthoseyearsstayswitha child for
a lifetime. That's why it's so important to watch for signs of
delays in development, and to get help if you suspect
problems.Thesoonera delayedchild gets earlyintervention,
thebettertheir progresswill be. So, if you have concerns, act
early.
http://www.med.umich.edu/yourchild/topics/devdel.htm
Multicultural is something that incorporates ideas, beliefs
or people from many different countries and cultural
backgrounds.
http://www.yourdictionary.com/multicultural
2. Changing Perspective
a. Medicine is the science and practice of the
diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease.
The word medicine is derived from Latin medicus,
meaning "a physician". Medicine encompasses a
variety of health care practices evolved to maintain
and restore health by the prevention and
treatment of illness.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine
b. Ecological The science of the relationships
between organisms and their environments.
c. Social refers to a characteristic of living organisms
as applied to populations of humans and other
animals. It always refers to the interaction of
organisms with other organisms and to their
collective co-existence, irrespective of whether
they are aware of it or not, and irrespective of
whether the interaction is voluntary or involuntary.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social
d. Educational giving people useful knowledge.
http://www.macmillandictionary.com/us/dictionar
y/american/educational
3. Their Environment
Society’s attitude towards CSN
CSN is defined as Children’s with Special Needs.
Children with special educational needs are children who
don’t have much in common with other children of the
same age. There are many aspects to a child’s
development that make up the whole child, including –
personality, the ability to communicate (verbal and non-
verbal), resilience and strength, the ability to appreciate
and enjoy life and the desire to learn. Each child has
individual strengths, personality and experiences so
particular disabilities will impact differently on individual
children. A child with special needs have a restriction in the
capacity of the person to participate in and benefit from

education on account of an enduring physical, sensory,
mental health or learning disability, or any other condition
which results in a person learning differently from a person
without that condition.
Special Needs may arise from four different areas of
disability those: physical, sensory, mental health, and
learning disability. Or from any other condition that results
in the child learning differently from a child without that
condition. It is also important to understand that a child
can have a disability but not have any special educational
needs arising from that disability which require additional
supports in school.
Prior to the twentieth century, social attitudes
reflected the view that children’s with special needs were
unhealthy, defective and deviant. For centuries, society as
a whole treated most of this children’s as objects of fear
and pity. The prevailing attitude was that such individuals
were incapable of participating in orcontributing to society
and that they must rely on welfare or charitable
organizations.
Generally speaking, prior to the late 1800’s, people
with mental retardation, cerebral palsy, autism, and/or
epilepsy resided at home and were cared for by their
families. Life expectancy for severely and profoundly
disabled individuals was not as long as it is today.
http://ncse.ie/wp-
content/uploads/2014/10/ChildrenWithSpecialEdNeeds1.p
df
Historical background of SPED; US and PHIL
The History of Special Education in the United States
Today, children with disabilities routinely attend the same
public schools as children without disabilities. But this was
not always the case.
Prior to legislation requiring public education for children
with cognitive or emotional disabilities, deafness,
blindness or the need for speech therapy, among others,
parents had few options other than to educate their
children at home or pay for expensive private education.
The story of Special Education begins in the early part of
the 20thCentury. Parents formed advocacy groups to help
bring the educational needs of children with disabilities to
the public eye. These groups gained momentum mid-
century. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy created the
President’s Panel on Mental Retardation. The panel’s
recommendations included federal aid to states. In 1965,
Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act, which provided funding for primary
education, and is seen by advocacy groups as expanding
access to public education for children with disabilities.
Despite these two important events, by the 1970’s, only a
relatively small number of children with disabilities were
being educated in public schools. Both enacted in 1975,
two federal laws would change this: The Education for All
Handicapped Children Act (EHA) and the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The EHA establishes a
right to public education for all children regardless of
disability, while the IDEA requires schools provide
individualized or special education for children with
qualifyingdisabilities. Under the IDEA, states who accept
public funds for education must provide special education
to qualifying children with disabilities.
The IDEA sets forth specific guidelines regarding Free
Appropriate Public Education. Among these is the idea
that education must be tailored to meet the needs of the
individual child with a disability. This education must be of
benefit to the child and should prepare the child for further
education (i.e., college) or to live and work independently.
The IDEA also requires that education occur in the least
restrictive environment and requires schools to take a
child’s disability into account when enforcing discipline.
Although not all children with disabilities are covered by
the IDEA and EHA, these two acts have been instrumental
in ensuring a free public education to millions of children
with disabilities each year since passage. Prior to these
acts,parents of children with disabilities had few choicesas
to the education of their children. Today, these children
receive their education along side children who do not
have disabilities.
http://www.specialednews.com/the-history-of-special-
education-in-the-united-states.htm
History of SPED in the Philippines
 1817- “American Asylum for the Education and
Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb”- First special
education school in the United States, the American
Asylum for the Education and Instruction of the Deaf
and Dumb (now called the American School for the
Deaf), was established in Hartford.
 1840 “Law Mandating Compulsory Education” -
Rhode Island passed a law education for all children
mandating compulsory. Compulsory education is
educationwhichchildren are required by law to receive and
governments to provide.
 1870 “Association of the Instructors of the Blind” -
The School for the Deaf and the School for the
Blind offer comprehensive educational programs for
hearing impaired and visually impaired students.
 1886 “AmericanAssociationonMentalDeficiency” -
The American Association on Intellectual and
Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) (formerly the
American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) is
formed to advocate for handicapped people's rights.
 1918 “Compulsory Education” - By 1918 all States
have mandated compulsory education.
 1919 “Wisconsin Supreme Court, in Beattie vs.
Board of Education” -Schoolscould exclude a student

who had been attending public school until the 5th
grade.
 1922 “Council for Exceptional Children” - The
International Council for the Education of Exceptional
Children is organized by a group of administrators and
supervisors attending the summer session at Teachers
College, Columbia University, and their faculty
members on August 10, 1922. The Council begins with
12 members. Elizabeth E. Farrell was the Founder and
first President, 1922 26.
 1930 “First White Cane Ordinance” - 1930, in Peoria,
Illinois, the first white cane ordinance gave individuals
with blindness the right-of-way when crossing the
street.
 1931 “The Bradley Home” - The Bradley Home, the
first psychiatric hospital for children in the United
States, was established in East Providence, Rhode
Island.
 1933 “Cuyahoga Council for Retarted Citizens” -
Parental AdvocacyGroupcomposed of five mothers of
children with mental retardation who came in
Cuyahoga, Ohio to protest their children's exclusion
from public schools. Led to the establishment of a
special class for their children, even though the parents
sponsored the class.
 1939 “Cuyahoga County Court of Appeals, Ohio” -
Ruled that the statute mandating compulsory
attendance gave state department authority to
exclude certain students.
 1940 “Beginning of the modern Special Education
Movement & National Foundation for the Blind &
AmericanFederationofthe Physically Handicapped”
- This decade is considered the beginning of the
modern Special Education Movement. During World
War II, many young soldiers sustained injuries that
resulted in lifelong disabilities. The need for
educational and employment opportunities and
services for these young men created legislation that
would precede Special Education legislation. *National
Foundation for the Blind is formed and advocate for
white cane laws and input from the blind on a variety
of programs. *American Federation of the Physically
Handicapped is formed- advocated for the end-of-job
discrimination.
 1943 “Classification of Autism”- The classification of
Autism was introduced by Dr. Leo Kanner of John
Hopkins University.
 1945 “Public Law 176: National Employ the
Handicapped Week” - Public Law 176 created more
awareness for possibilities for employment of the
"handicapped."
 1946 “Cerebral Palsy Society” - The Cerebral Palsy
Society is formed by parents in NYC.
 1947 “Perkins Brailler Developed” - The Perkins
Brailler is developed; printing of large type books is
initiated.
 1950 “National Association for Retarded Citizens
(ARC)” - ARC was founded in 1950. It helped identify
children with disabilities and mental retardation and
bring them out of their houses.
 1951 “First institution for research for exceptional
children” - The first institution for research on
exceptional children opened at the University of
Illinois.
 1953 “At-Home Attendant Care Provided” - Los
Angeles County provided at-home attendant care to
adults with polio as a cost- saving alternative to
hospitalization.
 1954 “Brown vs. Board of Education and Social
Security Act Amendment” - In this milestone decision
the Supreme Court ruled that separating children in
public schools on the basis of race unconstitutional. It
signaled the end of legalized racial segregation in the
schools of the United States, overruling the "separate
but equal" principle set forth in the 1896 Plessy v.
Ferguson case *Social Security Act of 1935 was
amended by PL 83-761 to include a freeze provision for
workers who were forced by disabilities to leave the
workforce. This protected their benefits by freezing
their retirement benefits at their pre-disability level.
 1955 “Councilfor the Exception Children's Journal” -
Council for the Exception Children’ s Journal made a
case for ending the segregation of disabled students.
 1956 “Social Security Amendment of 1956” - Social
Security Amendments of 1956 created the Social
Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) program for
disabled workers aged 50 to 64.
 1960 “States started their own Special Education” -
In the 1960s states started setting up their own special
education programs.
 1961 “President's Panel on Mental Retardation”-
President John F. Kennedy appointed a special
President's Panel on Mental Retardation.
 1963 “Association for Children with Learning
Disabilities”- Parents first joined forces at a national
conference held in Chicago in 1963. There they formed
the Association for Children with Learning Disabilities.
 1964 “Civil Rights Act” - Made discrimination based
on race, religion, sex, national origin, and other
characteristics illegal.
 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(ESEA) & Amendments” - *President Johnson's
legislative plan termed, "War on Poverty". As Daniel
Schugurensky states the act "was developed under the
principle of redress, which established that children
from low-income homes required more from low-

income homes required more Educational Inequalities)
The act proved to be a catalyst for future educational
legislation. A few of the pivotal acts that derived from
the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)
include the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act,
the Bilingual Education Act, and the Goals 2000:
Educate America Act. *ESEA Amendments - First
Federal grants to states schools for the education
children with disabilities.
 1966” Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Amendments of 1966” - Transferred authority from
the Director of OEO to the U.S. Commissioner of
Education (Department of Health, Education and
Welfare) Federal grants to local schools. Not less than
10 percent nor more than 20 percent reserved for
special projects and teacher training (Sections 309 b
and c) National Advisory Council on Adult Education
and Bureau of Education for the Handicapped
established.
 1968 “Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Amendments of 1968”- Established programs to
improve special education.$100,000 was provided as
the base for the state allotment and Private non-profit
agencies added as eligible local grant recipients.
Amendments of 1970” - Established a core grant
program for local education agencies. Revised
statement of purpose to include adults who had
attained age 16 and had not graduated from high
school, State allotment base raised to $150,000,
Special emphasis given to adult basic education,
Presidentially appointed National Advisory Council on
Adult Education established, 5 percent administrative
cost authorized.
 1971 “Pennsylvania Association for Retarded
Children (PARC) cs. Pennsylvania” - *Pennsylvania
Association for Retarded Children, along with parents
of children with mild to severe disabilities, sued the
state and won their case to establish a free and
appropriate education (FAPE) for all children with
mental retardation between the ages the ages of 6 and
21 in Pennsylvania.
 1972 “Mills vs. District of Columbia Board of
Education” - The Mills suit brought on behalf of over
18,000 children in the District, based on the 14th
amendment and claimed that children with disabilities
were excluded from public education without due
process.
 1973 “Rehabilitation Act” - The Rehabilitation Act
prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in
programs conducted by Federal agencies, in programs
receiving Federal financial assistance, in Federal
employment, and in the employment practices of
Federal contractors. The standards for determining
employment discrimination under the Rehabilitation
Act are the same as those used in title I of the
Americans with Disabilities Act. Rights of the
handicapped in employment and education are
ensured through section 504 of the Rehabilitation
Amendments.
Amendments of 1974” - Appropriate education for all
children with disabilities. Community school program
was added, State allotment revised, State plan
expanded to include institutionalized adults, Cap on
adult secondary education at 20 percent, Provided for
bilingual adult education, 15 percent for special
projects and teacher training, Special projects for the
elderly, State advisory councils could be established
and maintained, National Advisory Council on Adult
Education to include limited English-speaking
members.
 1975 “EducationforAllHandicappedChildren Act” -
“Specific learning disabilities” was recognized and
added as a new disability category in The Education for
All Handicapped Children Act of 1975. The EAHCA was
intended to provide administrators with proof of
compliance, teachers with formalized plans, parents
with a voice, and students with an appropriate
education.Alongwith assurances of nondiscriminatory
evaluation, individualized educational planning, and
education in the least restrictive environment.
 1976 “KurzweilReader” -Raymond Kurzweil develops
Kurzweil Reader that translates material into
synthesized speech.
 1978 “Journal of Special Technology” - First Issue of
Journal of Special Education Technology.
 1979 “Armstrong vs. Kline & NECC Conference” -
*Armstrong- extended school year. *First NECC
conference is held.
 1981 “Espino vs. Besteiro *S-1 vs. Turlington” - *
Espino-Cube within a classroom-U.S. District
concluded that placement in a "cube" was not the
maximum extent appropriate to achieve peer
interaction nor was the placement to the maximum
extent practicable. *S-1-discipline
 1982 “Board of Education of Hendrick Hudson
Central School District vs. Rowley” - In the Rowley
case the court ruled, "once a court determines that the
requirements of the act have been met, questions of
methodology are for the resolution by the state."
Parents do not have a right to compel a school district
to provide specific programs. The Rowley case is often
cited by school districts for the general proposition
that the school district or municipality need not
provide "optimum" services, and need only provide
services which are "appropriate."

 1983 “EducationforAllHandicapped Children Act of
1983 Roncker vs. Walter” - *The title of the act was
changed by amendments in 1983 This law allows for
federal funding to create parent training and
information centers (PIC) so that parents could learn
how to protect the rights that PL 94-142 guarantees
their child. PL 98-199 also provided financial incentives
to expand services for children from birth to age 3 and
the initiatives for transition services from school to
adult living for students with disabilities. *Critical
Analysis of Segregated Placements- "Roncker Test"
whether segregated placement could be modified and
provided in a mainstream classroom.
 1984 “Hurry vs. Jones & Irving ISD vs. Tatro” -
*Hurry- Door to Door transportation. State must give
free door to door transportation service to the
education program in which he is enrolled. *Irving-
Related Services. Medical Services are only excluded if
they have to be administered by hospital or physician.
Developed two-step analysis to determine related
services.
 1985 “Aguilar vs. Felton & Burlington School
Committee vs. Dept. of Ed. Of Massachusetts” -
*New York City uses federal funds received under the
Title I program of the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act of 1965 to pay the salaries of public
schoolemployees whoteach in parochial schools in the
city. That program authorized federal financial
assistance to local educational institutions to meet the
needs of educationally deprived children from low-
income families. *Burlington- Tuition reimbursement
for private school placement.
 1986 “EducationforAllHandicappedChildren Act of
1986 & Alama Heights ISD vs. State Board of
Education & Max M. vs. Illinous State Board of
Education&RegularEducationInitiative” -*In 1986,
an amendment to the EHA, extended the purpose of
EHA to include children ages 0-5 and included: To
extend the guarantee to a Free and Appropriate Public
Education(FAPE) to children with disabilities, ages 3-5.
To establish Early Intervention Programs (EIP) for
infants and toddlers with disabilities, ages 0-2. To
develop an Individualized Family Service Plan(IFSP) for
each family with an infant/toddler with disabilities.
*Alama Heights ISD vs.State Boardof Education (Year
Round Services) The School District is required to
provide a "free appropriate public education." The
some-educational-benefit standard does not mean
that the requirements of the Act are satisfied so long
as a handicapped child's progress, absent summer
services, is not brought "to a virtual standstill." Rather,
if a child experiences severe or substantial regression
during the summer months in the absence of a
summer program, the handicapped child may be
entitled to year-round services. *Max M v. Illinois
Board of Education (Psychological Services and
Counseling.) The district court opinion dealt with the
substantive issue of whether "psychotherapy" was a
related service. The holding was in the affirmative,
along with the lines of the Garret. F. case. The court
simply asked whether the service was capable of being
delivered by a non-physician; answer was yes. The
district had to reimburse the parents at the cost level of
a non-physician. *Regular Education Initiative
established.
 1987 “A.W. vs. Northwest R-1 School District &
Talking Textwrite” - *A.W. vs. Northwest R-1 School
District (Cost as a Consideration) Congress provided
limited resources to the states to implement the policy
of educating all disabled students, and the sufficiency
of that education must be evaluated in light of the
available resources. *Talking text write created.
 1988 “Lachman vs. Illinios State Bd. Of Ed. & Honig
vs. Doe & Spielberg vs. Henrico” - *Lachman-District
Determines Methodology. School System didn't want
to place student in mainstream classroom. Court
quotes Rowley case- question of methodology are
ruled by the state. *Honig v. Doe "stay put" provision
prohibits schools from excluding students from
classrooms for misconduct that is due their disability.
*Spielberg-Change of Placement.
 1989 “Daniel R. R. vs. State Board of Education &
Timothy W. vs. Rochester, NH School District &
Hendricks vs. Gilhool & Goals 2000 Summit” -
*Daniel R.R- When segregated placement is
appropriate. Determines the least restrictive
environment. *"Zero Rejection" States must give free
appropriate public education and doesn't ask any level
of achievement be derived from an individual's
education. *Hendricks- Comparable facilities. Special
Education classrooms have to be comparable to
facilities available for children in regular classrooms.
*Goals 2000 Summit
 1990 “EducationforAll Handicapped Children Act” -
of1990 & Americans with Disabilities Act *EHA named
changed to Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA). It
guarantees equal opportunity for individuals with
disabilities in employment, public accommodations,
transportation, State and local government services,
and telecommunications. *P.L. 101- 336 Americans
with Disabilities Act prevents discrimination based on
ability.
 1991 “Kids Pix”
 1993 “Oberti & Rachel H. & Florence County S.D.” -
four vs. Carter & Zobrest vs. Catalina Foothills S.D.
*Oberti and Rachel H. (Educating in regular
classrooms) The central issue in this case concerns the
appropriateness of an IEP which recommended

placement of the child in a "segregated" program
outside the child's "home" district. Cases are
proponents of the least restrictive environment.
*Florence County- Tuition Reimbursement *Zobrest-
Establised clause in parochial schools.
 1994 “Parents of Student W.” - Parents of Student
W.-DueProcess:Ten Day Rule. When a studentposes a
potential threat to others he may be suspended for up
to 10 days. When suspension totals more than 10 days,
this constitutes a change in placement. In addition,
schools will have to judge whether handicapping
condition is the cause and if so whether the student's
current program and placement is appropriate.
 1995 “Poolaw vs. Bishop” - Poolaw - Requirement
that schools provide Individualized programs tailored
to the needs of each child with disabilities must be
balanced.
 1996 “Telecommunications Act of 1996 & Seattle
School District No. 1 vs. B.S. & Fulginiti vs. Roxbury
Township Public Schools & K.R. vs. Anderson
Community School” - *Section 255 of the
Telecommunications Act of 1996 mandates that
telecommunications equipment and services -
including cell phones and plans - are provided so that
someone with a disability can use them. *Seattle
School District, No. 1 vs. B.S. (placement of students)
Whether the District failed to provide FAPE. The facts
at hearing support a finding that the IEP as developed
on April 17, 2003 contained measurable goals in the
areas of math, interpersonal skill, and study skills. The
Parent agreed at hearing that the goals were
measurable. Parent’ s arguments to the contrary in
closing arguments were not persuasive. The District
met its burden to state measurable goals in the areas
identified as necessary for the Student to receive
FAPE. *K.R. Private Schools *Fulgrini The court
especially focused on the tracheotomy tube, which
required constant monitoring and clearing of mucus.
At first, the public school provided a full-time nurse to
provide services to Carissa while at school. The school
determined that it was not required by law to provide
the services due to the "medical nature" of these
provisions. The Court ruled in favor of the school - they
were not required under IDEA to provide medical
services to the student.
 1997 “Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
Amendments of 1997 & Morton Community Unit
School District No. 709 vs. J.M. & Hartmann vs.
Loudon County B of Ed.” - *This most recent
legislation to address students with disabilities amends
and reauthorizes IDEA. One change was parent
participation. Parents “right to be involved in decision
making was significantly expanded-Prior to IDEA 97,
parents were only guaranteed to be part of the group
that developed their child’ s IEP. However, with IDEA
97 Congress further strengthened and specified
parents “role in their child’s IEP.
 1999 “Cedar Rapids Community School District vs.
Garret F.” - Cedar Rapids- Nursing as a related service.
Medical services are those offered by a physician.
Services that can be provided in school by a nurse or
layperson are excluded as medical services.
 2000 “Children's Health Act” - A long term study of
children's health and development.
 2001 “No Child Left Behind Act & President's
Commission of Excellence in Special Education &
Navin vs. Park Ridge S.D. & September 11th
” - *On
October 3, 2001, President George Bush established a
Commission on Excellence in Special Education to
collect information and study issues related to Federal,
State, and local special education programs with the
goal of recommending policies for improving the
education performance of students with disabilities.
*On January 8, 2002, President George Bush signed
the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). This act
reauthorized and amended federal education
programs established under the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965. *Navin-
Non-custodial parents have the right to participate in
IEP meetings. Septermber 11:Terrorists attack the
World Trade Center
 2003 “War in Iraq” - 2003 U.S goes to war with Iraq
 2004 “Assisstive Technology Act” - *The "Tech Act,"
as it is sometimes called, funds & Individuals with
Disabilities Education Improvement Act 56 state
programs designed to address the assistive technology
needs of individuals with disabilities. *IDEA is
reauthorized and aligned with NCLB. The revision
included early assessment, early intervention,
Universal Design for Learning, and discipline
procedures.
 2005 “Schaffervs.Weast & Hurricane Recovery Act”
- *Schaffer-Party seeking due process bears the
burden of proof - this is seen as a victory for school
boards. *Due to Hurricane Katrina the Hurricane
Education Recovery Act was established to educate
those displaced by the hurricane.
 2006 “ArlingtonCentralS.D.vs. Murphy” - Arlington-
No reimbursement for the cost of experts (eg.
Witnesses, consultants) under IDEA
 2007 “Winkleman vs. Parma City S.D. & NYC Board
of Education vs. Tom F.” - *Winkleman-Parents
cannot legally represent their children in court. *
Tuition reimbursement is guaranteed for enrollment of
students with disabilities in private institutions.
Highlights in the History of Special Education in the
Philippines

 1907- Delia Delight Rice sailed from the United States
to Manila on May 2007. Shortly after her arrival, she
found out the she has no students. But instead of
leaving, she looked for students in the provinces and
found Paula Felizardo first. More students enrolled in
the School for the Deaf and the Blind (SDB) after she
successfully taught Paula in a few months.
 Jan 1991- Silent Worker, an international publication
for the hearing impaired, acknowledged that SDB
transferred to a new building.
 1911- Ms. Rice married Ralph Webber. Although the
marriage ended in 1913, her official records were filed
under her married name.
 Feb 1912 -Ms. Rice wrote an article in the Silent
Worker and Wisconsin Times about
SDB’s new building.
 1914 -Rogelio Lagman, an SDB graduate who studied
fora year in California, came back andwas in-charge of
classes for the blind in SDB. He later left in 1920 to
establish a carpentry shop that employs the blind.
 1915 -The Public Welfare Board was created to see
social services. It was later abolished in 1921 and
replaced by the Bureau of Public Welfare, under the
Bureau of Public Instruction.
 1916 -Ms. Rice worked on the possibility of sending
Jose Servilles, an SDB student, as the first Filipino
Gallaudet University student.
 1917 -Gallaudet University President Percival Hall
informed Ms. Rice that Jose Servilles failed the
Gallaudet University admission test.
 Jan 1917 -The Home for the Orphaned and Destitute
Children was built. It was later called Unit A and
became one of the eight Welfareville Institutions under
Act 3203, the “first socialized law the Philippines ever
had under the American regime.”
 1920 -Pedro Santos, another SDB graduate, studied in
California for a year before going to Gallaudet
University.
 Dec 1925 -Welfareville, also known as the “Children’s
Village,” was established in a forty-hectare lot in
Mandaluyong.
 1926 -Pedro Santos went back to the Philippines and
established the Philippine Association for the Deaf.
 1949 -The Philippine Foundation for the Rehabilitation
of the Disabled started to help in the rehabilitation of
people with disabilities. Later on, they facilitated
teacher training in special education.
 1955 -Dr. Matilde Valdes’ interest in special education
was ignited when she was inadvertently hospitalized at
the National Orthopedic Hospital.
 May 1956 -Ms. Amelita Lita Servando established the
Special Child Study Center in Manila, the first special
school for children with mental retardation in the
Philippines.
 1959 -Special Child Study Center began to
systematically train. They began with two-month
summer workshops which culminated their co-
sponsorship of the First Institute in Education and
Training of the Mentally Retarded. The other co-
sponsors were the Bureau of Public Schools and
Philippine Mental Health.
 Mar 1959 -Bureau of Public Schools issued a
memorandum that called for the development of
classes for educable students with mental retardation.
 1959- Thirty-two first-year high school students were
selected from several schools using competitive tests
and were put together in one class. They became the
first batch of the Manila Science High School in 1963.
 1961- The SDB historical marker was unveiled during
the honorary dinner for Delia Delight Rice which she
attended.
 1962- The First National Seminar in Special Education
was held in the historic School for the Deaf and the
Blind from November 29 to December 5.
 July 1998 -Centers for Excellence (CENTEX) schools
for poor but bright children opened in Manila.
 1998 -“Teaching Filipino Children with Autism,” the
first reference book on autism in the Philippines, was
published.
 Aug 2002- A National Workshop reviewed the
accomplishments of the Asian Decade of the Disabled.
 2003- The Philippine Decade of Persons with
Disabilities started and ended in 2012. 2007 UP- SPED
publishes “Anno B?” an annotated bibliographies in
Special Education.
 2007- Year-long centennial celebration of special
education in the Philippines.
Disability Legislation from the National Council on
Disability Affairs (Formerly National Council for the
Welfare of Disabled Persons)
 1954 RA 1179 - AnAct to Provide for the Promotion of
Vocational Rehabilitation of the Blind and Other
Handicapped Persons and Their Return to Civil
Employment
 1963 RA 3562 - An Act to Promote the Education of
the Blind in the Philippines
 1965 RA 4564 - An Act Authorizing the Philippine
Charity Sweepstakes Office to Hold Annually Special
Sweepstakes Race for The Exclusive Use of the Office
of Vocational Rehabilitation, Social Welfare
Administration, in its Development and Expansion
Program for the Physically Disabled Throughout the
Philippines
 1969 RA 5250 - An Act Establishing A Ten-Year
Training Program for Teachers of Special and

Exceptional Children in the Philippines and Authorizing
the Appropriation of Funds Thereof
 1989 RA 6759 - An Act Declaring August One of each
Year as White Cane Safety Day in the Philippines and
for Other Purposes
 1991 RA 7277 - AnActProviding for the Rehabilitation,
Self-Development and Self-Reliance of Disabled
Persons and their Integration into the Mainstream of
Society and for Other Purposes
Executive Orders (EO)
 1987 EO 232 - Providing for the Structural and
Functional Reorganization of the National Council for
the Welfare of Disabled Persons and for other
Purposes
 1993 EO 385 - Creating a Task Force to Address the
Concerns of the Persons with Disabilities
 2005 EO 417 - Directing the Implementation of the
Economic Independence Program for Persons with
Disabilities (PWDs)
 2005 EO 437 - Encouraging the Implementation of
Community-Based Rehabilitation (CBR) for Persons
with Disabilities in the Philippines.
Administrative Orders (AO)
 2002 AO 35 - Directing all Departments, Bureaus,
Government-Owned and/or Controlled Corporations,
Government Financial Institutions, Local Government
Units, State Universities/Colleges and Schools, and
Other Government/Instrumentalities to Promote and
Conduct Relevant Activities During the Annual
Observance of the National Disability Prevention and
Rehabilitation Week.
Proclamations
 1965 Proclamation 465 - Declaring the Last Week of
February of Every Year as Leprosy Control Week
 1974 Proclamation 603 - Child and Youth Welfare
Code
 1975 Proclamation1385- Designating the Periodfrom
February 14 to 20, 1975, and Every Year Thereafter, as
“Retarded Children’s Week”
 1979 Proclamation1870 - Declaring the Third Week of
July every Year as the National Disability Prevention
and Rehabilitation Week
 1991 Proclamation 829 - Declaring the Period from
November 10-16 of Every Year as “Deaf Awareness
Week”
 1993 Proclamation 125 - Proclaiming the Nationwide
Observance in the Philippine of the Asian and Pacific
Decade of Disabled Persons, 1993-2002
 1994 Proclamation 452 - Declaring the Second Week
of October of Every Year as National Mental Health
Week
 1996 Proclamation 711 - Declaring the Third Week of
January as Autism Consciousness Week
July as the National Disability Prevention and
Rehabilitation Week which shall Culminate on the
Birthdates of the Sublime Paralytic: Apolinario Mabini
on July 23 Each Year
August of Every Year as Brain Attack Awareness Week
 2002 Proclamation 157 - Declaring the Month of
February as “National Down Syndrome Consciousness
Month”
the Year 2003 to the Year 2012 as the Philippine
Decade for Persons with Disabilities
 2002 Proclamation 230 - Declaring the First Week of
September of Every Year as the “National Epilepsy
Awareness Week”
October of Every Year as “National Attention
Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) Awareness
Week”
September 16to 22, 2004 and Every Year thereafter as
Cerebral Palsy Awareness and Protection Week 2004
Proclamation 657 - Declaring the Year 2000- 2010 as
the “Bone and Joint Decade”
October of Every Year as “Bone and Joint (Musculo -
Skeletal) Awareness Week”
 2004Proclamation744 -Declaring the Last Mondayof
March of Every Year as Women with Disabilities Day
 2006 Proclamation1157- DeclaringDecember 3,2006
and Every Year Thereafter as “International Day of
Persons with Disabilities in the Philippines”
http://www.scribd.com/doc/215003780/Timeline-of-the-
Development-of-SPED-Including-History-of-SPED-in-the-
Philippines#scribd
Early Experiments and Programs
Historical Roots and Early Foundations
The overall framework of contemporary early
intervention has evolved from multiple perspectives. The
first part will focus on the historical contributions of four
discrete fields: early childhood education, maternal and
child health services, special education and child
development research.
Special Education
The history of special education services for children with
disabilities provides a third lens through which we can
examine the evolution of early childhood intervention
services. In ancient times, young children with physical
anomalies or obvious disabilities were often the victims of
active or passive euthanasia. During the Middle Ages and
succeeding centuries, retarded individuals were either

tolerated as court jesters or street beggars (see Aries,
1962), or were imprisoned or otherwise institutionalized
(see Chase, 1980).
Most historical overviews of the field of special
education begin with the attempts by Itard, in the late
eighteenth century, to teach the “wild boy of Aveyron”,
using a set of sensory trainings techniques and what is
currentlycharacterized as behavior modification. However,
Itard’s student,Edouard Seguin, is generally acknowledged
as the most important pioneer in this field. As director of
the Hospice des Incurables in Paris, Seguin developed a
“physiological method of education” for disabled children.
This method was based on a detailed assessment of an
individual strengths and weaknesses and a specific plan of
sensory activities designed to correct specific difficulties.
Through painstaking observations Seguin described the
early signs of developmental delay and emphasized the
importance of early education (Crissey, 1975). As noted
earlier, his methods were later adapted by Montessori for
education of poor preschool children in Rome.
Seguin’s pessimism about the benefits of special
education initiated later in life was complemented by his
belief in the critical importance of early intervention. He
stated, “If the idiot cannot be reached by the first lessons
of infancy, by what mysterious process will years open for
him the golden doors of intelligence” (quoted in Talbot,
1964, p. 62). Seguin was indeed, one of the first “early
interventionists”.
Shifts in attitudes and practices regarding the
education of children with disabilities have been described
in evolutionary terms b Caldwell (1973), who identified
three major historical periods. The first, labeled “Forget
and Hide”, refers to the practice in the first half of this
century through which handicapped children were keep
out of public view presumably to avoid embarrassing their
families. The second period corresponds to the prevailing
attitudes of the 1950s and 1960s, and is called “Screen and
segregate”. In this period, children with disabilities were
tested, labeled, and then isolated once again in special
facilities, based on the assumption that they needed
protection and could not function independently in the
mainstream. Caldwell named the third period “Identify and
Help”. Beginning in the mid- 1970s, with the passage of
landmark special education legislation and continuing to
the present day, this stage has been marked by efforts to
screen for special needs in the early years of life in the
hopes of providing appropriate intervention services at as
young an age as possible. The goals of this era are to
contain the consequences of disabling conditions, prevent
the occurrence of more severe disorders, assist the families
of children with disabilities, and increase the opportunities
for all children to grow to their full potential.
https://www.bc.edu/content/dam/files/schools/lsoe/pdf/EI
CS/EarlyChildhoodInterventionTheEvolutionofaConcept.p
df
1960
The Experimental Education Unit
In 1960, the Experimental Education Unit (EEU)
was privately funded as a small school for children with
neurological disorders. Directed by UW faculty, it had one
class for preschoolers and two classes for older children. In
1965, the school broadened its focus to include children
with a wider range of disabilities, and it began its affiliation
with the UW's Child Development and Mental Retardation
Center (now called the Center onHuman Development and
Disability), which is one of the 12 federally authorized,
interdisciplinary centers in the nation concerned with
developmental disabilities. After several moves, in 1969
the EEU took occupancy of its present location as part of
the CHDD complex on the Lake Washington Ship Canal in
Seattle.
Over the past 25 years, EEU has provided direct
educational and related services toover 2,500 childrenwith
disabilities including Down syndrome, autism, cerebral
palsy, learning disabilities, communication disorders and
delays, hearing impairment, behavioral disorders, Fetal
Alcohol syndrome, Rett syndrome, and Attention Deficit
Disorder.
In this same period, more than 4,500 professionals
from the fields of education, special education, speech and
language pathology, audiology, occupational and physical
therapy, psychology, social work, pediatric medicine,
nursing, and nutrition have received valuable experience
and training in the EEU classrooms. "Best practices" that
originated in EEU research and in its model programs have
been adopted across the country and throughout the
world.
"Since its beginning, and continuing to this day,
the EEU has recognized the educability and dignity of each
child in its programs, and has been dedicated to helping
families promote their children's learning and well-being,"
notes EEU director Richard Neel. "Over the years,
innovation has been the key to our research and model
development programs," says Neel. "Special education
faculty and EEU staff, working together, have focused on
developing and refining innovative strategies to improve
the education of children with disabilities."
Research projects conducted at EEU, and by EEU
investigators in field settings across the State and the
nation, have focused on a wide variety of issues ranging
from studies of the earliest language development and
reading instruction, to developing high school curricula for
students with disabilities and easing the transition
between school and adult living for these youths.
Researchers of the EEU have conducted a 15-year study of
the differential effects of two different preschool curricula,

as well as a follow-up study of special education high
school graduates for 10 years after graduation.
"Some of the most innovative model programs
have been developed and refined at EEU and then
transported to field settings where other educators
replicated them," notes Neel. Among those are two early
interventions: a program for children with Down syndrome
and other developmental delays, and a communication
program. Both interventions were conceptualized and
implemented with local funds, says Neel. Later, as part of
the federal Handicapped Children's Early Education
Program, EEU staff were funded by the U.S. Department
of Education to help centers across the country put these
strategies into practice in their own classrooms.
"The program for Down syndrome children was
developed at a time when many professionals were still
encouraging families to institutionalize their Down
syndrome children, and was therefore extraordinary in
focusing on the children's ability to learn in a wide range of
skill areas, including academics--for example, early
reading," notes Neel. He points out that children educated
in this early intervention program wenton to public school,
from which almost all graduated. "Most of those with
whom we are still in touch are employed," he adds.
The communication program was innovative in
that it developed teams of teachers and speech/language
pathologists who worked together under natural
circumstances in the classroom to remediate children's
communication and language disorders. "This was an
extremely unusual model," notes Neel, "because typical
practice at that time was to remove children from the
classroom for services in clinical settings only."
The EEU has evolved over the years in keeping
with societal changes, while maintaining its tradition of
innovation. For instance, federal "Education for All"
legislation beginning in 1975, and amplified since then, has
mandated that children with disabilities of common school
age (6-21) be educated in the mainstream, insofar as
possible, rather than in separate facilities like the EEU,
explains Neel. "The EEU has responded vigorously to the
mandate towards inclusion--that is, educating children
with disabilities together with their typically-developing
peers. All EEU programs are integrated to include children
with a wide range of abilities," he notes. However, the
need to provide appropriate education for very young
children with disabilities has continued to grow, as has
recognition of the importance of the very earliest
intervention; the EEU now serves children from birth to
age 7.
https://www.washington.edu/research/showcase/1
960c.html
Contributors
Throughout the history of special education, over 4.5
million children were denied adequate schooling. But, over
the years, many people — often disabled themselves —
focused on education for people with disabilities. Some of
these individuals broke barriers by fighting for their own
educational experiences.
Pedro P once de León (d. 1584) was a
Spanish Benedictine monk believed to be
the first person to develop a method for
teaching deaf/mutes during the 16th
century. Details of his methods either were never recorded
or have been lost. Many laymen believed at that time that
the deaf were too simple-minded to be eligible for
salvation under Christian doctrine.
Abbot Charles-Michel de l’Epée (d. 1789)
was a philanthropic educatorof 18th-century
France who has become known as the
“Father of the Deaf.” What distinguished
Épée from educators of the deaf before him,
and ensured his place in history, is that he allowed his
methods and classrooms to be available to the public and
other educators.
Abbot Rche-Amboise Sicard (d. 1822)
took l’Epée’s sign language and further
perfected it. He was made principal of a
school for the deaf at Bordeaux in 1786,
and in 1789, on the death of the Abbé de
l’Épée, succeeded him at Paris. He met Thomas Hopkins
Gallaudet while traveling in England and invited Gallaudet
to visit the famous school for the deaf isn Paris.
ThomasHopkins Gallaudet (d.1851) helped
fund and was for many years the principal of
the first institution for the education of the
deaf in North America. When opened in
1817, it was called the “American Asylum for Deaf-Mutes”
in Connecticut,butit is now knownas the American School
for the Deaf.
Louis Braille (d. 1852) became blind after he
accidentally stabbed himself in the eye with
his father’s awl. He later became an inventor
and designed braille writing, which enables
blind people to read through feeling a series of organized
bumps representing letters. This concept was beneficial to
all blind people from around the world and is commonly
used even today.
Edward Miner Gallaudet (d. 1917), Thomas’
son, was the president of Columbia
University for the deaf from 1864–1910. He

sought college status for that university and received it
with President Abraham Lincoln’s help. The school then
became known as the first college for the dear, or
Gallaudet University. He was a staunch advocate of sign
language.
Dr. Jacob Bolotin (d. 1924) was the first
congenitally blind man to receive a medical
license. Dr. Bolotin lived and practiced in
Chicago during the early part of the
twentieth century and was particularly
known for his expertise on diseases of the heart and lungs.
He used his many public speaking engagements to
advocate for the full inclusion of the blind in education,
employment, and all other aspects of society.
Eglantyne Jebb(d.1928) was a British social
reformer who wrote the first draft of the
Declaration of the Rights of the Child, a
series of related children’s rights
proclamations adopted by the International
Save the Children Union, Geneva, in 1923 and endorsed by
the League of Nations General Assembly in 1924.
Clifford W. Beers (d. 1943) was a young
businessman who had a mental breakdown
and recovered to write about it in A Mind
That Found Itself in 1908. He created the
National Committee on Mental Hygiene to
move Americans away from state hospital custodialism
and to emphasize prevention.
Herbert Hoover (d. 1964) endorsed Jebb’s
work and created the Charter of the
American Child. “For every child who is
blind, deaf, crippled, or otherwise physically
handicapped, and for the child who is
mentally handicapped, such measures as will early discover
and diagnose his handicap, provide care and treatment,
and so train him that he may become an asset to society
rather than a liability.”
Helen Keller (d. 1968) was an American
author, activist and lecturer. She was the
first deaf/blind person to graduate from
college. She was not born blind and deaf; it
was not until nineteen months of age that
she came down with an illness described by doctors as “an
acute congestion of the stomach and the brain”, which
could have possibly been scarlet fever or meningitis.
Dr. Gunnar Dybwad (d. 2001) persuaded
the leaders of the Pennsylvania Association
for Retarded Children to sue on behalf of
disabled children in 1969. The case, PARC
versus Pennsylvania, is credited with
establishing the rights of children with
disabilities to get a free and equal public education.
Rosemary Kennedy (d. 2005) was the third
child and eldest daughter of Joseph and
Rose Kennedy. A lobotomy performed on
Rosemary in 1940 left her permanently
disabled. She inspired her sister, Eunice
Kennedy Shriver, to begin a summer day camp that grew
into the Special Olympics, and inspired her brother,
President John F. Kennedy, to initiate sweeping legislation
designed to improve the quality of life for Americans with
disabilities.
Anne McDonald is an Australian authorand
an activist for the rights of people who have
communication disabilities. She
developed severe cerebral palsy
from a birth defect, and was
institutionalized throughout her teens. At age 18,
she repeatedly fought the system in Australia to
achieve, through facilitated communication, her own
deinstitutionalization, independence, and enrollment in a
university.
Rosemary Crossley is another Australian
author and advocate for disability rights.
She wrote, with Anne McDonald, the
book, Annie’s Coming Out, the story of
Anne’s breakthrough to communication. She later wrote a
second book, Speechless: Facilitating Communication for
People Without Voices.
Madeleine Will, in1986,proposedwhat has
been called the Regular Education Initiative.
Citing concerns about some unintended
negative effects of special education “pull-
out” programs, her proposal suggested that
greater efforts to educate mildly and moderately disabled
students in the mainstream of regular education should be
pursued. In 2004, Ms. Will was named Director of the
National Policy Center of the National Down Syndrome
Society.
John Elder Robison, brother to Augusten
Burroughs (author of Running with Scissors)
wrote his own memoir on what it was like to
grow up with Asperger’s Syndrome. The
book, Look Me in the Eye, published in 2007,
was a groundbreaking look into how one person coped
with an unknown disease until he learned about Asperger’s
at age 39. Robison now serves as a volunteer spokesman
for the Graduate Autism Program at Our Lady of the Elms
College in Chicopee, Massachusetts.
Dr. StephenShore was nonverbal until four
and diagnosed with “atypical development
with strong autistic tendencies,” Stephen
Shore was regarded as “too sick” to be
treated on an outpatient basis and
recommended for institutionalization. Fortunately, his

parents disagreed. He is now completing his doctoral
degree in special education at Boston University with a
focus on helping people on the autism spectrum develop
their capacities to the fullest extent possible.
Temple Grandin is a Doctor of Animal
Science and professor at Colorado State
University, bestselling author, and
consultant to the livestock industry in
animal behavior. As a person with high-
functioning autism, Grandin is also widely noted for her
work in autism advocacy and is the inventor of the “hug
machine” designed to calm hypersensitive persons.
Susan Lee Barker, a special education teacher, brought a
lawsuit against the school district that she worked for. She
took the brave position that if anti-discrimination laws
protect kids with disabilities, and prohibit retaliation
against kids for taking action to protect their own rights,
then those laws must also protect the people who stand up
for those kids. In 2009, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals
agreed in the now-famouscase, Barker v. Riverside County
Office of Education.
http://mastersinspecialeducation.net/2010/top-20-
famous-contributors-to-the-special-education-field/
Charlotte Mason (1842-1923) Pioneer of
Home Education
A citizen of Britain, Charlotte Mason’s
dream was that all children, no matter
what social class, should have the
opportunity to obtain a liberal arts education. She was
dedicated to improving the way in which children were
educated. Seeing the importance of educating parents in
areas of discipline and the training of children, she began
the Parents’ Education Union. It was her belief that
children learn best through “living books” rather than dry
textbooks and through real experiences. Her methods
included an emphasis on the enjoyment of the arts and the
study of great artists and musicians. Many of her
educational practices were well suited to home education
and her methods have become the foundation of many
homeschooling families.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Pioneer of How
Children Learn
Anyone who has taken a child psychology
class will have studied the developmental
and learning theories of Jean Piaget, the
Swiss psychologist. Fascinated with how children
reasoned, he began researching and writing books on the
subject of child psychology. When he later married and
fathered three children, he was supplied with enough data
to write three more books! His research and subsequent
theories have become the basis and foundation of our
understanding of normal child development.
Margaret Bancroft (1854-1912) Pioneer of
Special Education
Bancroft’s intelligence, imagination, and
dedication to her students set her apart as
an extraordinary educator. At the age of
25, she embarked on a courageous and lonely endeavor by
opening the first private boarding school in Haddonfield,
New Jersey, for children with developmental delays. She
believed that disabled children needed special schools,
adapted material, and well trained teachers rather than to
be sent to institutions. Bancroft’s students responded to
her love and patience and individually-tailored instruction.
Under her influence, the medical profession began to
awaken to their responsibility to help correct defects and
disabilities in children. Admirers of her skill came to train
and later became leaders in the field of special education.
Booker T. Washington (1856-
1915) Pioneer of Education for
African-Americans
Born into slavery and later
freed, Washington knew first hand the
difference an education can make in a person’s life. As a
young man, Washington was appointed to head the
Tuskegee Institute now called Tuskegee University, which
was originally a teacher’s training college for African-
Americans. He was leader ofthe college fromits infancy to
the time of his death. He became a dominant and
influential figure among politicians and the general public
and did much to pave the way for later civil rights and
desegregation of public education. It was his belief that
education was the African-American community’s best
chance for social equality and a better future.
John Dewey (1859-1952) Pioneer of
Progressive Education
It was while he was a professor of philosophy
and the head of the Chicago University’s
teacher college, that Dewey exerted his
greatest influence in education and promoted many
educational reforms through his experimental schools. It
was his view that children should be encouraged to
develop “free personalities” and that they should be taught
how to think and to make judgments rather than to simply
have their heads filled with knowledge. He also believed
that schools were places where children should learn to live
cooperatively. A member of the first teacher’s union, he
was concerned for teacher’s rights and their academic
freedom.

Maria Montessori (1870-1952) Pioneer of
Individualized Education
Montessori methods remain the popular
choice for many parents who seek an
alternative education for their children, especially for the
early childhoodthrough the primary years. Before she took
an interest in education,Montessori was the first woman in
Italy to obtain the training to become a doctor. She was
assigned the post of medical care to the patients of a
mental institution and it was there that she encountered
“backward” children igniting her passion for education.
Beginning with a daycare facility in one of the poorest
neighborhoods in Rome, Montessori put her theories into
practice. Her methods were influenced by her previous
training in medicine, education, and anthropology. The
results were extraordinary and soon drew much attention
from many partsof the world, including America. The rest,
as they say, is history.
John Holt (1923-1985) Pioneer and Advocate for Home
Education
Talk about going full circle. Whereas Horace Mann fought
for the free public education of all children, Holt raised
awareness of the need for reform in America’s public
schools. As an educator, he became convinced that the
present system stifled the learning of most children mainly
because of fear. Disillusioned by the inability to bring
reform and improvement to public schools, Holt left
teaching and devoted his time to the promotion of his
ideas. He believed that children learn best when allowed
to follow their own interests rather than having learning
imposed upon them. His exposure to proponents of home
education lead him to later conclude that the best place to
set up a natural environment for learning was within a
child’s home. His books had a profound impact on the
growth of the home schooling sector.
Marie Clay (1926-2007)PioneerofBalanced
Literacy Model and Reading Recovery
Born in Wellington, New Zealand, Marie
Clay became an international leader in the
study of children’s acquisition of literacy.
Her methods of teaching reading and written language
have swept through the United States and other English
speaking nations since their inception three decades ago.
The reading recovery component was developed as a
means of lifting the low achieving first grader to a place
alongside the average learner. The structure of the
program calls for close observation of the student by the
teacher to design lessons that constantly build on what a
child already knows and taking them to the next level.
Children are surrounded by a language rich environment
and encouraged to choose reading books that align with
their personal interests.
Jerome Bruner (1915-) Pioneer of Discovery Learning
Theory
To combat the behaviorist approach to
education, Bruner developed cognitive
psychology and promoted a constructivist
approach. His discovery learning theory is
based on the assumption that children
learn and remember better what they discover for
themselves and that they are better able to remember new
information if they connect it to something that they
already know. His research and subsequent theories on
child development closely aligns with the work of Jean
Piaget.
Howard Gardner (1943-) Pioneer of Multiple
Intelligences Theory
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences has
redefined educators’ views of how students
learn and should be assessed. Historically,
intelligence has been measured through the ability to
problem solve and to demonstrate cognitive ability
through various controlled verbal and performance type
tasks. Gardner’s theory broadens the field of how
individuals display their intelligence by including linguistic,
logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, special,
interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligences. Through his
influence there has been a greater emphasis placed on
performance testing and educators have become more
conscious of the need for diversification of instructional
strategies to match the learning styles and strengths of
students.
http://www.teachhub.com/top-12-pioneers-education
Prevalence
What is Prevalence?
“Prevalence” is the proportion of a population who have
(or had) a specific characteristic in a given time period – in
medicine, typically an illness, a condition, or a risk factor
such as depression or smoking.
Prevalence is calculated if one has information on the
characteristics of the entire population of interest (this is
rare in medicine).
Prevalence is estimated if one has information on samples
of the population of interest.

 Prevalence is generally determined by:
o Randomly selecting a sample (smaller group) from the
entire population, with the goal being for the sample to be
representative of the population.
o For a simple representative sample, prevalence is the
number of people in the sample with the characteristic of
interest, divided by the total number of people in the
sample.
o When samples (instead of entire populations) are used to
generate estimates of prevalence, statistical ‘weights’ may
be applied to adjust the sample characteristics to match up
with the target population that they were selected to
represent.
 For example, if the randomly selected sample ends up
having 53% women and 47% men in it, but the target
population the sample is supposed to represent has 51%
women and 49% men, then statistical weights will be
applied to bring the proportions of women and men in the
sample in alignment with the portions of women and men
in the target population.
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/prevalence/inde
x.shtml
Lifespan Perspective
Lifespan can be defined as the period that extends from
conception to death. Thus, lifespan development is a
processthat begins at conceptionand continuoustodeath.
Lifespan development can therefore be defined as a
methodical, intra-individual transformation that is
attributed to progressions corresponding to age. The
development advances in a way that implicates the level of
functioning. As a child grows he exhibits transformations
that progresses with time. These may include physical
growth, cognitive advancement, and psychological
advancement that may entail emotional and social
development.
Physical development may directly refer to the increase in
body and organ sizes, signs of ageing and motor abilities.
Cognitive development is mainly concerned with the
manner in which a child thinks or perceives the world. This
is brought about by the changes in perception, language
knowledge, memory, and problem solving skills.
Psychological development entails transformations in
personal and interpersonal advancements that are
concerned with emotional and social aspects. Emotional
development subjects children to certain emotional
feelings such as guilt and pride. Social development is
mainly concerned with the manner in which children
interact, share and relate as friends (Hernandez, 2008).
Characteristics of lifespan perspective
Development is a distinctive feature that largely varies
from individual to individual. Life expectancy has been
greatly boosted by progress made in nutrition, health and
medical knowledge. Development is life-long and thus is
not dominated by any age period, it is multi-dimensional.
This is because it is concerned with the biological,
cognitive, socio-emotional and spiritual aspects.
Development can also be said to be multidirectional as
some features of development increase while others are
decreasing. Another characteristic of development is that
it is plastic. It is able to assume different paths depending
on the living conditions of an individual. It has the capacity
to change. For example, the condition of a child
experiencing intellectual retardation may be reversed by
the administration of proper diet and positive experience
(Hernandez, 2008).
The other characteristic is that development is historically-
embedded. This is to mean that historical conditions can
influence development. Development is multidisciplinary.
Professionals in the field of psychology, sociology,
anthropology, neuroscience and medical research are all
concerned with human development with a common goal
of expanding their understanding of development in the
course of the lifespan. It is contextual in the sense that a
person incessantly responds to and acts on context. Such
contexts may include the biological constitution of an
individual, physical environment, and social, historical, and
cultural contexts (Hernandez, 2008).
Human Development Domains and Periods
Development domains are categories that are adopted by
scientists. Three main domains have been defined and they
appear to be related or they appear to affect each other.
These domains are biological, cognitive and psychological.
Biological domain is characterized by human growth and
physical changes in human. This is normally centered on
the course of childhood and adolescence. It is normally
concerned with maturation and growth. Cognitive domain
tends to address the manner by which learning takes place
and the reasons for deterioration of memory in the course
of old age. Cognitive domain is constituted by the mental
processes of imaging, perceiving, way of thinking and
problem solving. Psychological domain is concerned with

emotions, individuality and social relations and
expectations. All these domains appear to be operating
jointly and affect each other (Boyd & Bee, 2006).
Human development periods cover the lifetime from
conception to death. In total there are eight major periods.
These periods include infancy and toddler, early childhood,
middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle
adulthood, and late adulthood. As long as a person is alive,
he/she will passthrougheach of these stages. In the course
of growth of a newborn to a toddler, they portray a
characteristic thinking ability, language and personality. In
their middle years, great emphasis is laid on family, school,
friends in addition to individuality and cognitive skills.
When one moves from childhood to adulthood, sexual
development is exhibited and the individual is subject to
thinking about marriage and career. In adulthood, one
cannot avoid thinking about retirement. Theories have
been put forward to explain in details how the actual
transitions from one period to another occur. Some of
these theories include the psychoanalytic, learning and
cognitive theories (Boyd & Bee, 2006).
Contemporary Concerns in Lifespan Development
There are two main concerns that are related to lifespan
development. These are nature and nurture,andcontinuity
and discontinuity. For the better part of history,
researchers thought that transformations in human were
due to forces that could have been external or internal.
Advancements in the knowledge and experimental factors
of biological processes are referred to as nature versus
nurture. Proponents of nature harbor the belief that
children are born with certain traits that are innate and are
inborn biases. These may have arisen as a result of genetics
or as a consequence of prenatal environment. In any case
children are not bornas blank slates. Proponentsofnurture
argue that the outcomes of certain occurrences depend on
how an individual perceive them (Boyd & Bee, 2006).
In the case of continuity and discontinuity, the subject of
contention is whether the transformation that comes with
age is basically a matter of amount, degree, type, or kind.
The number of friends that a child has may vary as his age
advances. These changes that come with age can be
grouped as universal, group specific and individual
changes. Children normally advance slowly through the
various stages of cognitive development. There is a
possibility of intelligence and individuality in the course of
childhood merging at the onset of adulthood. This
continuity is not rigid but flexible hence it is subject to
change. A child who portrays a high level of intellectual
capacity in the course of his childhood may lose this good
trait if they are continuously subjected to an environment
where they are vulnerable to abuse and are neglected
(Boyd & Bee, 2006).
Every human being goes through universal changes. Such
changes are a characteristic of certain ages. Group specific
changes are a preserve of individuals who share
comparable cultural and historical experiences. Individual
changes are limited to the person concerned and are
attributed to genetic factors and timing of experiences.
Everybody is unique, and this is attributed to their genes
which dictate their physical appearance, individuality, and
intelligence (Smith, 1999).
http://bestpsychologyarticles.blogspot.com/2012/08/life-
span-perspective.html
1. Normalization
Normalization is the process of organizing data in a
database. This includes creating tables and establishing
relationships between those tables according to rules
designed both to protect the data and to make the
database more flexible by eliminating redundancy and
inconsistent dependency.
Redundant data wastes disk space and creates
maintenance problems. If data that exists in more than one
place must be changed, the data must be changed in
exactly the same way in all locations. A customer address
change is much easier to implement if that data is stored
only in the Customers table and nowhere else in the
database.
What is an "inconsistent dependency"? While it is intuitive
for a user to look in the Customers table for the address of
a particular customer, it may not make sense to look there
for the salary of the employee who calls on that customer.
The employee's salary is related to, or dependent on, the
employee and thus should be moved to the Employees
table. Inconsistent dependencies can make data difficult to
access because the path to find the data may be missing or
broken.
There are a few rules for database normalization. Each rule
is called a "normal form." If the first rule is observed, the
database is said to be in "first normal form." If the first

three rules are observed, the database is considered to be
in "third normal form." Although other levels of
normalization are possible, third normal form is considered
the highest level necessary for most applications.
As with many formal rules and specifications, real world
scenarios do not always allow for perfect compliance. In
general, normalization requires additional tables and some
customers find this cumbersome. If you decide to violate
one of the first three rules of normalization, make sure that
yourapplication anticipates any problems that couldoccur,
such as redundant data and inconsistent dependencies.
https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/kb/283878
2. Deinstitutionalization
Deinstitutionalization, the name given to the policy of
moving people with serious brain disorders out of large
state institutions and then permanently closing part or all
of those institutions, has been a major contributing factor
to increased homelessness, incarceration and acts of
violence.
Beginning in 1955 with the widespread introduction of the
first, effective antipsychotic medication chlorpromazine,or
Thorazine, the stage was set for moving patients out of
hospital settings. The pace of deinstitutionalization
accelerated significantly following the enactment of
Medicaid and Medicare a decade later. While in state
hospitals, patients were the fiscal responsibility of the
states, but by discharging them, the states effectively
shifted the majority of that responsibility to the federal
government. http://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/a-
failed-history
3. Mainstreaming
Generally, mainstreaming has been used to refer to the
selective placement of special education students in one or
more “regular” education classes. Proponents of
mainstreaming generally assume that a student must
“earn” his or her opportunity to be placed in regular classes
by demonstrating an ability to “keep up” with the work
assigned by the regular classroom teacher. This concept is
closely linked to traditional forms of special education
service delivery. http://weac.org/articles/specialedinc/
What is Mainstreaming?
Because of increased early detection of hearing loss and
advances in hearing technology, more and more children
who are deaf or hard of hearing are learning in their
neighborhood schools, instead of specialized programs.
Mainstreaming is a term used to describe the integration of
children withhearing loss into regular schoolclassrooms so
they can learn alongside their hearing peers. This now
happens at earlier ages than ever before, with many
children mainstreaming as early as kindergarten.
Students who are deaf or hard of hearing can thrive in
mainstream classrooms, but it is vital that each student
receive the personalized supportthey need to succeed. For
over 30 years, Clarke Mainstream Services has been a
resource for families and schools mainstreaming students
with hearing loss. Through a variety of customizable
services, we work with students, parents and school
professionals to provide information, support and teaching
services to help ensure that every child has the chance to
reach their full potential.
http://www.clarkeschools.org/services/what-is-
mainstreaming
4. Segregation
Segregation is the separation of humans into ethnic or
racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as
eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain,
using a public toilet, attending school, going to the movies,
riding on a bus, or in the rental or purchase of a home.
Segregation itself is defined by the European Commission
against Racism and Intolerance as "the act by which a
(natural or legal) person separates other persons on the
basis of one of the enumerated grounds without an
objective and reasonable justification, in conformity with
the proposed definition of discrimination. As a result, the
voluntary act of separating oneself from other persons on
the basis of one of the enumerated grounds does not
constitute segregation". According to the UN Forum on
Minority Issues, "The creation and development of classes
and schools providing education in minority languages
should not be considered impermissible segregation, if the
assignment to such classes and schools is of a voluntary
nature".
Racial segregation is generally outlawed, but may exist de
facto through social norms, even when there is no strong
individual preference for it, as suggested by Thomas

Schelling's models of segregation and subsequent work.
Segregation may be maintained by means ranging from
discrimination in hiring and in the rental and sale of
housing to certain races to vigilante violence (such as
lynchings). Generally, a situation that arises when
members of different races mutually prefer to associate
and do business with members of their own race would
usually be described as separation or de facto separation of
the races rather than segregation. In the United States,
legal segregation was required in some states and came
with anti-miscegenation laws (prohibitions against
interracial marriage). Segregation, however, often allowed
close contact in hierarchical situations, such as allowing a
person of one race to work as a servant for a member of
another race. Segregation can involve spatial separation of
the races, andmandatory use of different institutions, such
as schools and hospitals by people of different races.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_segregation
Segregation
Disabled people of all ages and/or those learners with
'Special Educational Needs' labels being placed in any form
of segregated education setting. This tends to force
disabled people to lead a separate life.
For example: separate special school, college or separate
unit within school/college or on separate segregated
courses within mainstream education settings.
5. Integration
'Special Educational Needs' labels being placed in
mainstream education settings with some adaptations and
resources,buton condition that the disabled person and/or
the learner with 'Special Educational Needs' labels can fit in
with pre-existing structures, attitudes and an unaltered
environment.
For example: The child is required to "fit in" to what already
exists in the school.
6. Inclusion
'Special Educational Needs' labels being educated in
mainstream education settings alongside their
nondisabled peers, where there is a commitment to
removing all barriers to the full participation of everyone as
equally valued and unique individuals.
For example: Education for ALL
http://www.allfie.org.uk/pages/useful%20info/integration.
html
7. Collaboration
One ofour core inclusive assumptions is that a professional
partnership is exponentially more effective and more
satisfying than the sum of its parts.
Collaboration is a deceptively simple concept with wide-
ranging and exciting implications for the education of all
children and the effectiveness of all educators. Originally
termed "collaborative consultation," the emphasis was
upon the special educator and the classroom teacher
sharing information about a child so as to better plan an
appropriate educational program. Such consultation was
defined as an interactive process that enables people with
diverse expertise to generate creative solutions to mutually
defined problems (Idol, Paolucci-Whitcomb & Nevins,
1987). The operant definition was later expanded to refer
to the participants as co-equal partners (Friend & Cook,
1992) and as having a shared vision (Wiig, 1992). The
expanding definition reflected a broadening of the concept
of collaboration in common professional practice.
Simply defined, collaboration takes place when members
of an inclusive learning community work together as
equals to assist students to succeed in the classroom. This
may be in the form of lesson planning with the special
needs child in mind, or co-teaching a group or class.
http://www.state.gov/m/a/os/43980.htm
8. Individualization
People with the strength of Individualization see each
person as one of a kind. They are intrigued by the unique
qualities of each person. They tend to have a natural ability
to discover uniqueness or hidden talents without the need
foran assessment orother tool. They want to do what they
can to draw out uniqueness. People with the strength of
Individualization are attentive to people’s individual style,
attitudes, and interests. They notice how others think or
are motivated.
- People are unique and different.
- People are valuable.

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