This document defines key terms used in social research methods, including the types of data (primary, secondary, quantitative, qualitative), concepts of validity and reliability, different sampling techniques (random, stratified, snowball), methods of data collection (surveys, interviews, observation), and approaches to research (positivism, interpretivism). It also distinguishes experimental designs from observational studies and outlines ethical issues.

1. Research Methods – Key Terms
Data – Information collected as part of a research project.
Primary data – New data produced by the researcher during the research process.
Secondary data – Data which already exists, which can then be used by the researcher.
Quantitative data – Numerical data – information in the form of numbers.
Qualitative data – All types of data that are not in the form of numbers (i.e. using
words)
Validity – Data is valid if it presents a true and accurate description or measurement of
something.
Reliability – Data is reliable when researchers using the same methods obtain the same
results.
Representative – If a sample is representative, then those in it will be typical of the
larger group. This will allow the findings to be generalised, i.e. applied to all members of
the group, not just those in the sample.
Interpretivism – An approach which focuses on the meanings and definitions which guide
and direct behaviour (favoured by interactionists).
Positivism – An approach which attempts to explain behaviour in terms of cause and
effect relationships (favoured by functionalists).
Social facts – Aspects of society which are external to individuals and which direct
their behaviour.
Ethics – Moral principles, beliefs about what is right and wrong.
Hypothesis – A statement that can be tested about the relationship between two or
more variables.
Variables – Factors which affect behaviour. Variables can vary or change, e.g.
temperature can increase or decrease.
Replication – Repeating an experiment or research study under the same conditions.
Laboratory experiment – An experiment conducted in specially built surroundings.

2. Field experiment – An experiment conducted in everyday social settings.
Experimental effect – Any unintended effect of the experiment on the participants.
Hawthorne effect – Changes in the behaviour of the participants resulting from an
awareness that they are taking part in an experiment.
Experimenter bias – The unintended effect of the experimenter on the participant.
Social survey – Systematic collection of data from a particular population.
Sample – A selection from the research population.
Sampling frame – A list of members of the research population.
Random sample – A sample which gives every member of the sampling frame an equal
chance of being selected.
Systematic sample – A systematic selection of people from the sampling frame e.g.
every 100th member.
Stratified sample – A sample which attempts to reflect particular characteristics of
the research population. The population is divided into strata in terms of age, gender
etc, and the sample is randomly drawn from each stratum.
Quota sample – A stratified sample in which selection from the strata is not random.
The researcher wants a certain number (or quota) of each sort of person required in a
certain category.
Snowball sample – Members of the sample suggest further participants that the
researcher could use.
Response rate – The percentage of the sample that participates in the research.
Self-completion questionnaire – A questionnaire completed by the respondent.
Closed question – A question which the range of responses is fixed by the researcher.
Open question – A question which allows the respondent to answer in their own words.
Pilot study – A ‘trial run’ designed to identify any problems with the main study.

3. Structured interview – A questionnaire which is read out and filled in by the
interviewer.
Semi-structured interview – Similar to a structured interview, but the interviewer is
allowed to probe with additional questions.
Unstructured interview – Few, if any, pre-set questions, though the researcher will have
certain topics they want to cover.
Group interview – Interview which involves an interviewer and a group of respondents.
Focus group – Group interview in which the interviewer encourages the respondents to
discuss certain topics with each other.
Interviewer bias – The effect that the interviewer has on the respondent’s answers.
Participant observation – The researcher participates in the activities of those he or
she is observing.
Non-participant observation – The researcher observes, but does not take part in the
activities of those being studied.
Covert research – The identity of the researcher and purpose of the research are
hidden from those being studied.
Overt research – The identity of the researcher and the purpose of the research are
made clear to those being studied.
Official statistics – Statistics produced by local and national government, government
agencies and organisations funded by the government.
Content analysis – Analysing the content of documents and media output to find out how
often and in what ways different types of people or events appear.
Triangulation – Combining different research methods and different kinds of data in
order to check the validity and reliability of findings.
Longitudinal study – A study of the same group of people at various times over a period
of years.