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Qualitative research second copy corrected
The document provides an overview of qualitative research including: - The difference between qualitative and quantitative studies - The scope and uses of qualitative research such as exploring phenomena and generating hypotheses - Common qualitative research methods like participant observation, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions - Steps in conducting qualitative research from establishing research questions to data analysis - Types of qualitative sampling, data forms, and analysis which are iterative and focus on themes rather than numbers The document serves as an introduction to key concepts in qualitative research methodology.
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Qualitative research second copy corrected
- 1. By Dr VishalAgrawal& Dr Menaal Kaushal JR-1, Department of SPM SN Medical College, Agra
- 2. Introduction DifferenceBetween Qualitative and Quantitative Study The Concept Of Qualitative Research Scope Of Qualitative Research Where To Use Where Not To Use As Complementary To Quantitative Study Steps in Qualitative Research Types Of Sampling In Qualitative Research Types Of Data& Forms Of Data Qualitative Research Methods Data Analysis
- 3. Consists of aninvestigation that: seeks answers to a question systematically uses a predefined procedures to answer the question set of collects evidence produces findings that were not determined in advance produces findings that may be applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study
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- 5. depends on: -The type of research question - The nature investigated of the problem being
- 6. Includes collecting,analyzing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Qualitative research refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions of things. It helps to understand the perspectives of the local population, thus providing the culturally specific information about opinions, values& behaviors. (Social Context)
- 7. The Scope ofQualitative Research is to explore& understand through Participant’s ‘Lived experience’ “Insider’s” perspectives And to understand In the Context
- 8. Developing anddelineating program elements before a quantitative evaluation Generating theory Boosting the power of quantitative design& Broadening the observation field Analyzing process and individual cases to explain the how and why of an outcome
- 9. Qual Quant • Generatehypothesis • Tests Generalisability Quant Qual • Guides Purposive Sampling • Helps Interprets Results Then Test it
- 10. Seek toexplore phenomena Instruments use more Seek to confirm hypotheses about phenomena flexible, iterative style of Instruments use more rigid, eliciting& categorizing responses inflexible style of eliciting and to questions categorizing responses to questions Use semi-structured methods such as interviews, focus Use highly structured methods groups, and participant such as questionnaires, observation surveys& structured observation To describe variation To quantify variation To describe& explain relationship To predict causal relationship To describe individual experiences& group norms To describe characteristics of a population
- 11. Open- ended Closed- ended Textual (obtained from audiotapes, Numerical (obtained by videotapes, and field notes) assigning numerical values to responses) Some aspects of the study are Study design is stable from flexible beginning to end Participant responses affect how and which questions researchers Participant responses do not influence or determine how and ask next- Researcher may use which questions researchers ask probes next- Researcher is limited by the Questionnaire Study design is iterative, that is, data collection and research questions are adjusted according Study design is subject to statistical assumptions and to what is learned conditions
- 12. Example: Example: Open Ended Questions CloseEnded Questions What are your opinions about Do you give OPV to your giving OPV to children, child during PPI rounds? during PPI rounds? Yes, Always No, Never Probe: Why do you think that giving OPV can harm your child? Sometimes/Occasionally Most of the times
- 13. To informwhat people are doing, thinking, and saying about a problem To identify the important problem to be solved at community/ local/ policy levels Generate a list of options for interventions To investigate interventions how best to implement promising To monitor response to interventions and assess how best to present its results to public and scientific community
- 14. When numbersare needed to make a decision (what proportion of people ) Results are to be projected to the total population (unless generalisability ensured by researcher through appropriate measures)
- 15. Sampling Techniques Purposive Sampling data review and analysisis done in conjunction with data collection Chain- Referral Snow-ball Sampling Quota Sampling Is a Subtype of Purposive sampling, when we pre-fix the number of participants from every category in the study Finds& recruits “hidden populations,” not accessible through other sampling strategies.
- 16. Unlike quantitativestudies, here sample size Is not determined by conventional formulae, but depends on the point of Saturation. Goal is to understand phenomena, not to represent population, so Select information-rich cases for intensive study Minimum samples based on expected reasonable coverage, given the purpose of the study and constraints
- 17. 1. Establish thegeneral problem to be investigated Of interest to the researcher 2. Stating the purpose of the study Based on problem analysis Arises from previous studies Guided by literature review Determined by who will use the research results 3. Develop a conceptual/theoretical framework for the study 4. Formulate general and specific research questions (aims and objectives) 5. Select a qualitative research design
- 18. 6 Select asampling strategy Establish site of the research Selection of participants 7. Ensure trustworthiness of the study 8. Determine data collection methods and develop data collection tools 9. Establish how data will be managed and analyzed 10. Interpretation and discussion of findings 11. Prepare research report
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- 20. The casestudy Ethnography Grounded theory Phenomenology Participatory research
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- 23. Strong RapportBuilding over long time through prolonged (>1yr) field work. Captures field in Holism Rapport building over short time through ice- breaking activities Concept of Engaging in Selection rather than Holism (see next slide) Researcher increasingly merges with the field& becomes Researcher remains a “Short time Visitor” or Can use data “as one of them” i.e. a part of collectors from the local the real people‟s lives to community understand the community “as naturally as possible” Data collection is not iterative but can be staggered (see next slide) Data collection is iterative& over prolonged time periods Analytical process is Terminal Analytical process is Iterative
- 24. ONE- SHORT/ APPLIED QUALITATIVE STUDY Phenomenon underStudy Context Staggered Data Collection Analysis (Terminal) 4
- 25. Types Of Qualitative QualitativeData Data Indirect Semi- Direct Inferential/ Abstract Participant‟s Report May not be Accurate May differ with Different Perceptions Validity of Representation Direct Represents The Actual Phenomenon Very Closely
- 26. Forms Of Qualitative Data FieldNotes Of: Participant Observations Observations made during FGDs& InDepth Interviews Audio- Video Recordings Of: • Focused Group Discussions • In- Depth Interviews Diagrams E.g. Sociograms
- 27. Includes: Participant Observation In- DepthInterviews Focused Group Discussions (FGD)
- 29. A qualitative research method in which researchers gather dataeither by observing or by both observing and participating, to varying degrees, in the study-community‟s daily activities, in community settings relevant to the research questions. Ex at bars, brothels, and health clinic waiting areas, religious settings.
- 30. Approach the participants in their own environment Don‟tdivulge the confidence- Don‟t leak out secrets! Take Field notes- record ALL observations, even informal communications established can be recorded
- 31. Appearance might indicatemembership in groups or in subpopulations of interest to the study, such as profession, social status, socioeconomic class, religion or ethnicity Verbal behavior& interactions Who speaks to whom and for how long; who initiates interaction; languages or dialects spoken; tone of voice, Gender, age, ethnicity, and profession of speakers; dynamics of interaction
- 32. Personal space Howclose people stand to one another. What individuals‟ preferences concerning personal space suggest about their relationships. Human traffic People who enter, leave, and spend time at the observation site. Where people enter and exit; how long they stay; who they are (ethnicity, age, gender); whether they are alone or accompanied; number of people. People who stand out Identify people who receive a lot of attention from others. What differentiates them from others; whether people consult them or they approach other people; whether they seem to be strangers or well known by others present.
- 33. Complete observer Behind one-way mirror, invisible role Observer as participant Known, overt observer Participant as observer Pseudo-member, research role known
- 34. It providesFamiliarity with the cultural milieu It can Uncover The Unknown Factors- It Can provide information previously unknown to researchers that is crucial for project design, data collection& interpretation of other data. But: It is Time- consuming- at least 1yr in the field, (as in traditional study pattern) It is Memory based, so discipline yourself It is Inherently Subjective so, Practice to be objective rather than narrating subjectively.
- 35. Determine : the purpose of the participant observation activity as related to the overall research objectives. the population(s) to be observed. the venues in which you would like to observe them. Investigate possible sites for participant observation. Select the site(s), time(s) of day, and date(s)
- 36. Decide howfield staff will divide up or pair off to cover all sites most effectively. Consider how you will present yourself, both in terms of appearance and how you will explain your purpose to others if necessary. Plan how and if you will take notes during the participant observation activity. Remember to take your field notebook and a pen.
- 37. Schedule timesoon after participant observation to expand your notes. Type your notes into computer files using the standard format set for the study
- 39. A qualitativeresearch method in which a researcher/interviewer gathers data about an individual‟s perspectives on a specific topic(s) through a semi-structured exchange with the individual.
- 40. The researcher/interviewerengages with the individual by posing questions in a neutral manner, listening attentively to responses, and asking follow-up questions and probes based on those responses.
- 41. Elicit feelings Thoughts Opinions Previous experiences The meaning people give to certain events
- 42. Informal conversationalinterview General interview- guide approach Standardized open-ended interview Closed fixed-response interview Combination of approaches
- 43. Experience andbehavior questions Opinion and value questions Feeling questions Knowledge questions Background/demographic questions
- 46. Focus group discussions are group discussions with asmall group of individuals from a well defined target population on preselected topics that rely on interaction between group members, under the guidance of a trained facilitator. Each participant is stimulated by the comments of others and in turn stimulate them.
- 47. It is aqualitative method which helps to find out the „How‟ „Why‟ of human behaviour It can provide insight into how a group thinks about an issue, the range of opinions and ideas, and variations the that inconsistencies exist in a and particular community in terms of beliefs and their experiences &practices.
- 48. Get avariety of perspectives/reactions to a certain issue In a short time Mainly for eliciting opinions, values, feelings in the group- the group norms
- 49. The topicshould is narrowly focused Selection of participants is also focused by targeting individuals who meet specific criteria Topic should be of interest to both the investigator and respondents. The emphasis should be on interaction between or among the group members.
- 50. Setting theobjectives Determine the target population Plan the number of of sessions Follow the guidelines regarding selection of participants, role of moderator/facilitator etc Developing F.G.D. guide Conducting F.G.D. Analysis and interpretation of result.
- 51. Cost-effective Qualityof data enhanced by group participants Can quickly assess the extent to which there is agreement or diversity on an issue Enjoyable for participants
- 52. Outside ofnatural setting Silences the minority view Responses by each participant may be Constrained Restricts number of questions that can be asked Requires group process skills Confidentiality not assured Explores major themes, but fails to catch subtle differences
- 53. Homogenous Strangers 6-10 people Discussion Time: 1- 2 hours 2 FGD per type of respondent Facilitators: Moderator and note taker Prepare discussion guide
- 54. Adequate knowledgeon background information about the topic and experience in conducting FGD Good listening skills Leadership skills Relationship with the participants Patience and flexibility Clothing
- 55. Orient thegroup in a proper manner. Put forth issues/ sub issues in appropriate questions. Create a non-judgmental environment in which group members feel free to express. Encourage interaction between participants. Encourage quiet participants to speak up and quieten garrulous talkers.
- 56. Guide thedirection of discussion so that it does not wander too far from the designated focus. Pace the discussion appropriate for the participant Subtly control the time allotted to each question and to the entire discussion.
- 57. Primarily anobserver, tape record the session. Observe the nature of interaction, record non-verbal communication & level of consensus Should know what type of data she/he is expected to collect. If facilitator has omitted a question from the guide, the recorder can point them out (at the end). Identify the speakers. Note down the first few words every time a new person speaks and make brief notes of the content.
- 58. Diagrammatic representationof entire session of FGD Offers a useful method of conceptualising group dynamics drawing comparisons between focus groups & reflecting on moderating technique
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- 63. Qualitative dataanalysis is a non-linear/ iterative process Numerous rounds of questioning, reflecting, rephrasing, analysing, th eorising, verifying observation, interview, Discussion after or Focus each Group
- 64. During datacollection Reading – Data Immersion – reading and re-reading Coding – listen to the data for emerging themes and begin to attach labels or codes to the texts that represent the themes After data collection Displaying – the Themes (all information) Developing hypotheses, questioning and verification Reducing – from the displayed data identify the main points
- 65. At allstages – searching for core meanings of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours described Overall interpretation Identify how themes relate to each other Explain how study questions are answered Explain what the findings mean beyond the context of your study
- 66. I. Reading / Dataimmersion 1. Read for content Are you obtaining the types of information you intended to collect Identify emergent explanations themes and develop tentative Note (new / surprising) topics that need to be explored in further fieldwork 2. Note the quality of the data Have you obtained superficial or rich& deep responses How vivid and detailed are the descriptions of observations Is there sufficient contextual detail
- 67. 3. Develop asystem to identify problems in the data (Audit Trail) - Read identifying patterns - After identifying themes, examine how these are patterned Do the themes occur in all or some of the data Is there a relationship between themes Are there contradictory responses Are there gaps in understanding – these require further exploration
- 68. Problems inthe quality of the data require a review of: How you are asking questions (neutral or leading) The venue The composition of the groups The style and characteristics of the interviewer How soon after the field activity are notes recorded
- 69. II. Coding – No standard rules of how to code Emergent Borrowed Record coding decisions Record codes, definitions, and revisions Usually - insert codes / labels into the margins Building theme related files Cut and paste together into one file similarly coded blocks of text NB identifiers that help you to identify the original source Identify sub-themes and explore them in greater depth
- 70. Coding qualitativedata does not mean reducing it to numbers, rather it is a means of indexing your data While all grounded theory involves coding, not all coding is grounded theory, again it is often assumed that because you are coding you are ‘doing’ grounded theory, this is not always the case It is a common misconception that computers can code qualitative data for you, to put it simply, they can’t.
- 71. III. Displaying data Capture the variation or richness of each theme Note differences between individuals and sub-groups Return to the data and examine evidence that supports each sub-theme
- 72. IV. Developing hypotheses,questioning and verification Extract meaning from the data Do the categories developed make sense? What pieces of information contradict my emerging ideas? What pieces of information are missing or underdeveloped? What other opinions should be taken into account? How do my own biases influence the data collection and analysis process?
- 73. V. Data reduction i.e.distill the information to make visible the most essential concepts and relationships Get an overall sense of the data Distinguish primary/main and secondary/subthemes Separate essential from non-essential data Use visual devices – e.g. matrices, diagrams
- 74. VI. Interpretation i.e. identifyingthe core meaning of the data, remaining faithful to to the perspectives of the study participants but with wider social and theoretical relevance
- 75. Consistent withdata collected Verified with respondents Present multiple perspectives (convergent and divergent views) Did you go beyond what you expected to find?
- 76. As a way to increase credibility, but also check transferability, dependability andconfirmability triangulation is often used. Triangulation = a cross-checking of information and conclusions in research, brought about by the use of multiple procedures or sources. If there is agreement between these, there is support of the interpretation of data. Using triangulation does not mean you get a certain truth, but you get closer to it – reflexivity is still necessary.
- 77. Method triangulation:Comparing data that come from the use of different methods. These could be both quantitative and qualitative. Eg. first using a questionaire to ask about eating habits in a school, and then conduct focus group interviews afterwards. Researcher triangulation: Involves using different people as researchers. This increased the confirmability and credibility of conclusions. Without this data collection and conclusions might be affected by researcher bias. Other triangulation thechniques include data triangulation and theory triangulation.
- 78. NATURALISTIC –Natural setting as source of data INDUCTIVE – It seeks to build theory from data & avoid imposing researcher‟s own categories of analysis HOLISTIC – It looks at the phenomenon in totality & takes an overall perspective TRIANGULATION – Comparing data collected from different methods FLEXIBLE DESIGN- Emergent design as opposed to pre-determined design in quantitative methods INTERPRETIVE – Aimed at discovering the meaning the events have for the individuals who experience them & interpretation of these meaning by researcher PARTICULARISTIC - Guided by objectives PROBES - are neutral questions, phrases, sounds, and even gestures interviewers use to encourage participants to elaborate on their answers and explain why or how
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- 80. If aQuestionnaire developed in a different cultural setting is “imported” and used, then one must check its validity in one’s setting – Qualitative methods in the initial phase, work towards avoiding this type III error. e.g. In U.S. It may be fairly normal to ask a single lady how many children she has, but this Question would create a havoc if asked by the researcher in India or Pakistan. Conversely, in U.S or U.K, it may again be a valid question to ask a mother of two, whether she is married, but this would prove to be disastrous if asked to an Indian mother. Thus, in essence, Type III errors deal with right answers to wrong questions!