This is a presentation based on research methods for as, Wjec sociology

1. RESEARCH METHODS
Sociology

2. WHY DO SOCIOLOGISTS DO
RESEARCH?
o To improve their studies.
o Get a basis of their methods.
o To improve their hypothesis.
o To gain knowledge around the topic they study.
o To get other views.
o To collect data.

3. INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL
RESEARCH
o The aim of sociological research is to move from subjective to
more objective.
Knowledge of something:
Subjective knowledge  objective knowledge
Reliability concerns:
o Consistency of the data collected.
o The precision with which it is collected.
o The repeatability of the data collection method.

4. KEY WORDS
o Method: something is more reliable if it can easily be repeated.
o Data: is reliable if the same result can be gained by others.
o Validity: the extent to which the collected research data represents what it
claims to represent. (valid data involves; depth, detail and a well-rounded
picture of whatever is being researched.)
o Reliability: when other sociologists can gain the same results.
o Validity: when the data gives a clear picture of what is being measured.
o Generalizability: when results can be applied to a wider section of a society.
o Operationalization of concepts: when the measurement of concepts are made
specific by the researcher.
o Objectivity: looks simply at the facts.
o Subjectivity: based on researchers opinions.

5. REPRESENTATIVENESS
Representativeness: whether the results of the research can be
generalised to wider populations.
• Sampling, is representative if the characteristics of the sample
group reflect the characteristics of the target population.
• Demographic data, is representative if the data collected is
comprehensive.
• Case studies, can be representative if they are typical of the
group or institution being researched.
Sample: a segment of the target population being studied.

6. QUANTATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
DATA
Quantitative: included statistical data, that is very
reliable and doesn’t include subjective language.
Qualitative: stories, meanings and opinions, that
isn't always reliable but is valid.

7. PRIMARY METHODS (SELF
CREATED RESEARCH)
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Observations
• Surveys
• Case studies
• Experiments
• Ethnographic studies
• Longitudinal studies.
• Primary research: new original and conducted by yourself. Its valid, reliable,
expensive and time consuming.
• Secondary research: exciting data. You have to be able to trust it but its a lot
cheaper and quicker.
(these methods can be combined for extra valid and reliable results)

8. QUESTIONNAIRES
• Contain open and closed questions written down and passed around to a
variety of people, or a target group of people to gain feedback and
statistics.
• Generally questionnaire data is from closed questions.
• They have high reliability.
• They are however less useful for collecting qualitative data.
• As a method it is seen as lower in validity, compared to unstructured
interviews or observations.
Likert scale: a scale 1-5 or 1-10 on how strongly you feel about a certain
topic.
• These are good for numerical answers (quantitative data)
Open ended questions: an answer that can be an opinion of a
topic.(qualitative data)

9. QUESTIONNAIRES
advantages disadvantages
You can collect both types of data. Its harder to collect in depth quantitative
data
It is reliable Answers and limited.
Ranking of questionnaires
reliability 4
validity 2
geralisability 4
representativeness 1
operationalization 2
objectivity 3
subjectivity 3

10. INTERVIEWS
• A method favoured by interpretive sociologists,
because apart from structured interviews they tend to
yield qualitative data.
• Seen to generate highly valid data.
• Seen as a method, to be lower in reliability compared
to questionaires.
Focus group: a diverse group of people assembled to
participate in a guided discussion about a particular
topic.

11. TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
Structured interview: similar to a questionnaire, no diversions/ extra
evaluation is considered.
• Every question is answered.
• Clarification can be given.
• Miss-understanding is minimised.
Semi-structured interviews: an interview that starts from a list of questions
but then allows for diversity.
Unstructured interviews: interviews that have a general topic but have no
structured questions to ask.

12. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Type of interview advantages disadvantages
Interviews in general • Opinionated answers
• Can be recorded for further used
• Allows for a lot of qualitative data.
• Not generalizable
• Note taking may miss vital
information.
Unstructured interviews • Allows for more information and
opinions
• Going off on tangents may lead to
you getting vital information you
didn’t consider asking.
• Less valid
• Not all information you may have
needed to be answered is.
• Hard to compare if different
questions are asked.
Semi-structured interviews • Important questions wont be
forgotten.
• You may come across more question
to ask in further interviews.
• Irrelevant data.
Structured interviews • You collect only the information you
require.
• The risk of the interviewee, or even
the interviewer is minimised.
• More quantitative
• No as valid.
OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF
INTERVIEWS

13. DESIGNING AN INTERVIEW
• Don’t ask leading questions. For example ‘would you
agree that…is …’ is a leading questions. A question
that isn't leading ‘what do you think about this...’
• Show patients and understanding.
• Don’t be prejudice.
Barker (1984)
• Studied the ‘monies’ accused of brainwashing.
• He used questionnaires and interviews.

14. INTERVIEWS
Labov (1973)
• Conducted semi-structured interviews.
• Found that the race of the interviewer effects results.
• BIA’S
Willis (1977)
• Carried out
interviews and
observations.
• Interviews with
teachers and
students.
• Working-class
kids wanted
working-class
jobs.
Ranking of interviews
reliability 2
validity 4
geralizability 3
representativeness 2
operationalization 3
objectivity 1
subjectivity 4

15. OBSERVATIONS
• Covert: undercover observations, the group doesn’t know they
are being observed.
• Overt: the group knows they are being observed.
• Participant: researchers involved in the observations.
• Non-participant: researchers not taking part.
Nigel fielding (1993)
• Used covert observations to research the
national front. He used this type of
observation to protect himself.
Humphreys (1970)
• Used participant interviews to observe the
tearoom trade.
Thornton (1995)
• Used participant observations to observe
the clubbing culture.
Beverly Skeggs (1991)
• Studied female sexuality amongst students
at a college. She used overt and non-participant
observations.

16. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Type of observation advantages disadvantages
covert • Reliable
• valid
• unethical
overt • Its ethical • The researcher may
influence people to act
differently when they
know what they are being
observed for.
participant • Increases validity
• Allows researcher to
investigate deviant
groups
• Participants may be
influenced to act
differently.
Non-participant • Without the researcher
being involved the
participants wont act any
differently
• Less valid
• Less reliable
OF OBSERVATIONS

17. OBSERVATIONS
Ranking of observations
reliability 3
validity 5
geralizability 3
representativeness 3
operationalization 4
objectivity 2
subjectivity 5

18. KEY WORDS
Pluralism: use of more than one sociological method
in a single study to ensure reliability and validity.
Triangulation: using more than one social research
method so that there is some form of check of one
against the other.
Pioting: to conduct a small scale version of the research
you plan to conduct in order to discover any
unanticipated problems that may arise.

19. METHODS
Mixed methods: using a variety of methods to conclude a study.
Mythological pluralism: strengths and weaknesses of different research
methods and aims to build up a fuller picture of social life by combining
different research methods and different types of data.
Triangulation: using more than one social research method so that there is
some form of check of one against the other.

20. SAMPLING
Population- the term given to everyone in the group that is being studied.
Sampling:
-A sample is a part of a larger population, often chosen as a cross-section of the
larger group so that the sample is representative.
-Sampling is used to generalise the larger population.
-samples are used to cut the cost of using a whole population.
-The whole population may not be willing to take part.
May not be able to access the entire population.
Things to consider:
•Time
•Cost
•Access
•Topic

21. SAMPLING
Sampling frames:
-A list of members from the population that are to be studied.
-Some are readily available (electoral role)
-Use of: telephone directories, membership lists, registration lists
etc.
Problems with sampling frames:
-Electoral role- doesn't always find all members of society.
-Phone directories- unrepresentative, the poor are often
underrepresented in phone directories. Many young people have
mobile phones and aren't listed.
-Club/ organisation membership only represent the pro-active.

22. SAMPLING
Random sampling:
-each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
-computer draws are used.
Large samples are needed to give a high chance of representativeness.
Equal chance, avoids bias selection.
Stratified sampling:
-randomly selected through a population of people that reflect the
study.
Dividing into groups and sampling from each.
Good for being representative.
Can be generalised.

23. SAMPLING
Opportunity sampling:
-using anyone that is available.
-its unreliable, and unrepresentative.
Volunteer sampling:
-used to find participants that are usually hard to
locate.
Found through advertisement.
May be bias to why they want to take part.

24. SAMPLING
Systematic sampling:
-take every nth name from the sampling frame.
-its quick and avoids bias.
Cluster sampling:
-certain areas chosen in the UK and random samples taken in those
areas.
Quota sampling:
- interviewing people from random groups.
-Use of the first few people you find from each group.
-Its quick, cheap and easy.
-It may not be representative.

25. SAMPLING
Snow-ball sampling:
-Ask one member to ask two members they know then them two
to ask two each and so on...
-Cannot be easily located.
-Less representative.
Purpose sampling:
-Sample chosen according to a known characteristic.(teacher, MP)

26. EXPERIMENTS
Laboratory experiment: an experiment conducted in specially built
surroundings.
Field experiment: an experiment conducted in everyday social settings.
strengths weaknesses
Reliable- it can be repeated, but
results may not be exact
(laboratory)
Field experiment may not be as
reliable because social settings
change daily
can be generalised

27. EXPERIMENTS
Variables: factors which affect behaviour, variables can vary or change.
Hawthorne effect: changes in the behaviour of participants resulting from an
awareness that they are taking part in an experiment.
Experiment bias: the unintended effect of the experimenter on the
participant.
Albert Bandura (1973)
Hypothesis: Aims: to see if violent behaviour influences children's behaviour.
Method: a child was put in a room of toys with an adult being violent towards a blow
up toy doll to see if the children would copy. (also showed violent television programs
to see if violence would increase among children.
Evaluation of Bandura’s study: every child copied so this proves violent behaviour
influences children's behaviour.

28. HOW EXPERIMENTS WORK
1. Starts with a hypothesis
2. Design experiment
3. Carry out experiment (collect quantitative
data)
4. Data is analysed
5. Generalise findings

29. SECONDARY RESEARCH
DOCUMENTS AND MASS MEDIA
A document:
Personal:
• Letters
• Diaries
• Autobiographies
• Memories
• Suicide notes
Official:
• School records
• Social work records
Mass media:
• Newspapers broadsheets
• Tabloids
• News (TV)
• radio

30. HOW TO USE DOCUMENTS AND
MASS MEDIA
1. Content analysis
• Systematically analysing communication e.g. how many times someone used a
certain word in an interview and how many articles in a newspaper are about
murder.
2. Qualitative interpretation
• Simply reading a persons documents to create an idea of the persons life and
opinions.
advantages disadvantages
Documents give you a lot of detail about a certain
area.
If the documents are old they may be hard to
understand.
Cheaper and easier than primary research. Could be issues with fake documents or letters.
A good place to start research. Over exaggeration of the media.
Could be difficult to interpret or compare
qualitative data.

31. • Produced by local governments, central government and government
There are two types of
statistics:
• HARD
• Can not manipulate
• Birth marriages etc..
• SOFT
• Can manipulate
• Poverty
• Crime
• unemployment
OFFICIAL STATISTICS
Examples:
• British crime survey questionnaire.
• Census (fill in a form by law every 10
years)
Non-official statistics:
• TV ratings
• Surveys set out by interest groups.
• Surveys carried out by sociologists.
agencies such as the police.

32. advantages disadvantages
Easy to obtain Some people have ulterior motives, (e.g. providing
how bad gun crime is in the UK and then only
looking at poor areas.)
Hard stats are objective and easy to analyse Soft statistics can be manipulated to suit the
needs of the researcher.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF OFFICIAL STATISTICS
advantages disadvantages
Quick and easy Exciting data might not be valid or reliable. You
are stuck with the way research was originally
done.
Can easily compare secondary data Documents may not be authentic.
Can compare past and present Official stats could be biased
Don’t have to worry about informed consent. Might not be able to find the information you
need in existing data
Your values can get in the way of how you
interpret that data.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF SECONDARY DATA OVERALL

33. ETHICS
• Moral principals that govern a persons or groups
behaviour.
• Set by the ‘British sociological association’
• Within research there are six main ethical
principals. >>>>>>>>>>>>>

34. Ethical issue definition Why is it important to not
breach this ethical issue?
studys
deceit The action or practice of
deceiving someone by
concealing or misrepresenting
the truth.
Fielding 1993: national front.
Covert participant
observations.
He deceived the people he
was observing.
sensitivity A person's feelings which
might be easily offended or
hurt
So people fell understood Humphreys: impersonal, sex
in toilets.
Invasion of privacy
No consent
bias Prejudice in favor of or
against one thing, person, or
group compared with another,
usually in a way considered to
be unfair.
Will cause the results to be
inaccurate.
Barker: Moonies
She became bias of them
confidentiality the state of being secret; "you
must respect the
confidentiality of your client's
communications
Can cause problems legally.
Invasion of privacy the wrongful intrusion by
individuals or the government
into private affairs with which
the public has no concern.
Informed consent by a patient to undergo a
medical or surgical treatment
or to participate in an
experiment after the patient
understands

35. PERSPECTIVES ON MYTHOLOGY
POSITIVISM VS INTERPRETIVISM
• Sociologists view of what society is like and how we should study it.
• 2 contrasting persepectives when it comes to choosing mythology.
1. positivism 2. interpretivism
2. positivism!
• Concern themselves with MACRO.(bigger picture)
• Assumes society exists independently of individuals. It is objective.
• Its an external force that’s observable and measurable and predictable.
• Society shapes and controls individuals. They are passive.
• Positivists prefer structured, quantitative mythology and aim to look for
predictable and formulaic patterns of behaviour.
• Look for casual relationships, and prefer value-free, reliable,
representative, large scale, qualifiable mythology.

36. Interpretivism !
• Concern themselves with MICRO.
• Subjective social construction
• Internal forces are unpredictable and cant be objectively measured,
individuals are active.
• Prefer unstructured, qualitative mythology and aim to uncover and
interpret meanings behind behaviour and interactions.
• Look for meanings and valid, small-scale, in-depth mythology.
Positivists primary data:
• Artificial experiments
• Comparative method
• Large scale surveys
• Questionnaires
• Structured interviews
• Non-participant observations.
Secondary data:
• Official statistics.
Interpretists primary data:
• Natural field experiments
• Small scale surveys
• Questionnaires
• Unstructured interviews
• Participant observations
Secondary data:
• Diaries
• Newspaper articles
• Auto-biography's
• Life histories
• Documents
• Photographs/ paintings.