Education

1. Significance of Sociology in Nursing
Sociology enables the nurses to understand about the forces and pressures that can
influence the patients unfavourably.
In hospital and health care centres, various people are employed, a team of doctors,
nurses, anaesthetists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, sociologists,
psychologists, lab and X-ray technicians, dieticians etc. Thus, better knowledge of
sociology enables the nurses to understand the behaviour, conflicts, inter personal
relationships, hierarchy, group, adaptation. Etc., of all people.
The information about the socio-cultural life of the patient is very important for
planning and implementing the treatment and sociology helps the nurse to collect such
information.
There are different social factors that become challenges in the process of nursing like
lack of education, superstitious principles, old age sayings of people, traditions, rituals,
customs etc. Sociology enables the nurses to have the knowledge of the social factors
and the ways in which the patients having different perspectives for medicines and
doctors can be dealt with.

2. In our country, the prime obstacle is illiteracy or lack of awareness. Together with care
services, the nurses are also responsible for educating the people about the cleanliness,
balance diet, vaccination, and about the health of mother and child.
 The discipline Sociology enables the nurses to have the knowledge of social Problems
faced by the patients.
 In absence of Sociology, the nurses may find difficulties while dealing with the patients
and the other members of the society.
The study of Sociology enables the nurses to evaluate the information of patient because
this subject helps them to learn about the techniques of interview, applications of statistics
and the formation of theories.
 In the process of nursing, the technique of adjustment is important and this can be
facilitated by the study of sociology.
Sociology enables the nurses to understand about the psycho-social problems of patients.
This is significantly useful for their medical treatments.

3. Fundamental Concepts of Sociology

4. Social structure
Social structure refers to the way the society is organised.
The concept of social structure was given by Herbert Spencer. The term "social structure" is
used by sociologists to describe organised structure of society and also the
interrelationships between different groups and constituents. Social structures are not
visible to the new observer, but they affect all social dynamics
According to Radcliffe Brown, "Social structure is an arrangement of persons in
institutionally controlled or defined relationships".
According to Ginsberg Opines, "Social structure is concerned with the principal forms of
social organisation, i.e., types of groups, associations and institutions and the complex of
these which constitute societies".

5. Elements of Social Structure
Social structure is an outcome of the interaction of various individuals who are organised to
pursue certain goals and objectives
Normative System: The normative system of the society is the source of various ideals and
morals. Various institutions are related with each other on the basis of these norms. The
individuals of society are governed as per the established norms of the society. For example,
presence of old age homes in India is still not in wide acceptance.
Position System: The position system refers to the status and responsibilities of individuals.
Every individual has a different set of goals and aspirations.
Sanction System: Every society has a sanction system for the appropriate enforcement of rules
and norms. It can also be understood in terms of rewards and punishments that exist in a society
for different types of behaviour. Different parts of the society should act in accordance with social
rules and regulations.
System of Anticipated Response: There are numerous words which we usually see or hear in
our daily life. For example, “work ethics” or “keep your surroundings clean”.
Action System: The action system focuses on social structure. This is a System which develops
social relationships and activates social structure.

6. Bases of Social Structure
•Need to Pursue a Goal: Human beings are the key components of social structure.
They have variety of opinions and interests. Inter-relationships of human beings provide
basis of social structure.
•For example, family is a part of social structure. In this structure, all members of the
family exist for a common purpose and objective for the happiness of the family.
•Preparedness to Accept One’s Role and Status: Members of social structure have
certain roles and responsibilities. A status is a socially defined position within a group
or society. A status may involve many roles. Both status and roles are the outcome of
customs, traditions and thought processes of society.
•Norms and Mores: Norms are the types of behaviours which are socially approved.
Norms play a very important role in allocating the roles and responsibilities of
individuals within the society. These norms are helpful in creating the inter-
relationships that are critical in a social structure.
For example, in Indian family, mothers play a vital role in taking care of the family
whereas, in American family, every member is responsible for self-care or self-help.

7. Types of Social Structure
Universalistic-Achievement Pattern: This type of value systems
are sometimes imposed on the values of social structure. These
mostly relate to the values of kinship, class distinctions, racial
qualifications, etc. These values become the guiding stones for
valuation of achievement. The choice of goals by the individual must
be in accordance with the universalistic values.
Universalistic-Ascription Pattern: In this type of social structure,
the Element of value-orientation is dominated by the ascription
element. Thus, a Strong emphasis is put on the position of individual
rather than his specific Achievements. Here, the prime focus is on
individual rather than his accomplishment.

8. Particularistic-Achievement Pattern: This makes a shift from Universalistic to
Particularistic norms. This type of social structure blends achievement values with a
strong sense of individuality. But these are focused on certain points of reference
within the relational system or are inherent in the circumstance. The emphasis on
achievement refers to the creation of a correct pattern of adaptation that is a result of
human achievement. It is maintained via ongoing efforts.
Particularistic-Ascriptive Pattern: This combination is essentially an
amalgamation of Particularistic with Ascriptive. The Particularistic part ensures that
goals are set keeping in mind several relational bases, particularly those of family
However, the ascriptive part ensures that these are very loosely defined and not
binding in the strict sense.

9. Importance of Social Structure in Nursing
Profession Nursing is a very noble profession. It ensures the continuous
caring of people who are sick, handicapped and not capable of even the
basic human functions. It encourages the health practises in individuals,
families and communities. Nurses are involved in healthcare
management, research, policy formulation and patient care.

10. Basic Concept of Society
A large social group that shares similar geographical territory, common culture,
and social structure, and are also expected to follow same laws are defined as a
‘society’.
According to G.D.H. Cole, “Society as the complex of organised association
And institutions within the community”.
According to A.W. Green, “A society is largest group to which any individual
belongs. A society is made up of a population organisation, time, place and
interest”.

11. Characteristics of Society
System of Social Relationship: MacIver states that “Society is a network of social
relationship”. The basis of society is the social relationship. On the basis of age, sex and
generation there are as many as fifteen relationships in a family.
Likeness: According to MacIver, “Society means likeness”. It is present in the like
beings, like-minded and like-bodied people. It is likeness or similarity that establishes
understanding among people. This type of understanding forms the basis for intimacy,
friendship, association, institution and any other type of social relationship.
Difference: Society includes people having different talent, personality, attitude and
ability. Different activities are pursued by these people because of their differences.
Interdependence: Another essential element of society is interdependence.
For example, the foundation of family is the biological interdependence of gender.
Cooperation and Conflict: Cooperation is also one of the bases of society. It is one of the
very basic elements of social life. Without cooperation people cannot live a life that is
happy and comfortable.

12. Culture: Culture of the society makes them unique and different from one another. Culture is
possessed by only human beings. The inherited pattern of cultural activity of a man is referred
to as their culture.
 Society is Abstract: Society includes customs, laws, morals, social relations, etc.
Abstractness and intangibility are the characteristics of social relations. These relationships
cannot be touched or seen.

13. Types of Society
Hunting and Gathering Societies: This is one of the most primitive societies. Members of
these societies are survived by hunting, fishing and agriculture. Earlier, this is used to be
dominant form of existence
Pastoral Societies: This type of society emerged 1200 years ago. Members of these
societies are engaged in rearing animals and used them for food and transportation. This
type of society still exists today and cab be seen in North Africa.
Horticultural Societies: Horticulture societies relied on cultivating plants, fruits,
vegetables, etc. As compared to pastoral society, these societies came into existence at
various parts of the planet at the same time.
Agricultural Societies: Agricultural societies were different from pastoral Societies in the
sense that they used technology aggressively. They used the Benefits of technology to grow
crops like rice, wheat, barley, etc., in large Areas
Feudal Societies: Feudalism was an integral part of our society from 9th century to 15th
century. It was based on ownership of land. There were land owners who were at the top of
the social structure and people who worked under these landlords,

14. Industrial Societies: This type of social organisation developed as result of the
Industrial revolution. These societies were driven by the use of machines, particularly
those that were based on fuel.
Post-Industrial Societies: The post-industrial societies have been driven by
technological advancement. The operating paradigm in the current age is the generation
and use of information, knowledge and services.

15. Individual and Society
Human being cannot live alone therefore they are considered as a social animal.
He enjoys living with others. Existence or survival of a man depends upon The
society.
Following are the reasons due to which man can be called as a social animal:
 Man is Social by Nature: Human being cannot survive alone. They need
society for their survival. The nature of human being requires them to live in
society. Some hidden capacities are present in human child.
Development of Self: At the time of birth, human infant is unaware about his
own “self”. After interacting with others the idea of “self” is developed in the
mind of the child.
Social Heritage Determines Human Personality: Man depends on social
heritage and therefore he is social. Social heritage is a blend of beliefs, ideals, and
customs.
Necessity makes a Man Social: Necessities of a man forces him to live in a
society. There are various needs of a common man. These needs of a man can be
fulfilled very easily if he lives in cooperation with others in the society.

16. Community
The term ‘community’ is formed from the two distinct Latin terms
namely, the ‘com’ and the ‘munis’. The term ‘com’ refers to ‘together’
and the term ‘munis’ Refers to ‘serve’. Therefore, the entire word
‘community’ refers to ‘serve
In the context of Sociology, the term ‘community’ refers to a group of
people who comply with social framework of the society. The social
framework consists of the culture, norms, values and status followed
in the society.
According to Kingsley Davis, “Community can be defined as the
smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of social life”.
According to Talcott Parsons, “Community can be defined as
collectivity the members of which share a common territorial area as
their base of operation for daily activities”.

17. Characteristics of Community
Community refers to a group of people involving in interaction.
Interaction among people is arising inside a restricted geographical area that Is
self-contained and all day to day activities (whether economic or non- Economic)
are arising in that specific area.
The members of community are sharing common values, beliefs and behaviors.
A specific social structure is present in a community. In absence of social
structure, a group of people cannot be termed as a community.
The members of community logically belong to each other.

18. Types of Communities
The types of communities on the basis of residential areas are as follows:
•Urban Communities: An urban area is considered as a centre of tertiary activities.
Normally, the space of urban area is closed and densely populated. The people living
in urban communities have a very busy lifestyle and they don’t have a concrete sense
of unity or likeness towards each other.
•Suburban Communities: A sub-urban area is located outside the urban area
comprising of various industrial and manufacturing units. Normally, the suburban
areas are also considered as the semi-urban or semi-rural. The people living in
suburban communities are very much similar to the urban communities having busy
lifestyle and less cooperation with more conflicts.
•Rural Communities: A rural area is entirely separate from urban and suburban
area. The people living in rural communities are very close to each other and share a
concrete sense of cultural cohesiveness. Basically, the rural Areas are serving raw-
material to the urban and suburban economies.

19. Association
Association is a group of individuals collected together for the purpose
of Achieving a common goals or objectives. An association can be
formed for the Achievement of a single objective or number of
objectives. Associations can be Society In society, no doubt the
population is essential but, it is bounded by the sense of unity.
The Law Dictionary defines it as, “The act of a number of persons
who unite or join together for some special purpose or business.”
According to Morris Ginsberg, “An association is a group of social
beings related to one another by the fact that they possess or have
instituted in common an organisation with a view to securing a
specific end or specific ends”.

20. Characteristics of Association
•Organised Social Group: An association is an organised group which is formed by
people. Thus, it is a social group. It is not possible to have an association without the
collaboration of people.
•Common Interest: An association is more than a mere collection of people. It is a
collection of those individuals who have common interests. For example, people who
have common political aspirations or interests can form political associations and
those who have religious interest can join religious association.
•Regulation of Relations: Every association is governed by its own set of rules and
regulations. Members have to abide by these rules. These rules may
Be written down or oral.
Cooperative Spirit: There needs to be collaboration between the members of the
association. It is necessary that members work together for the achievement of certain
common objectives. For example, a political association is formed with the specific
objective of getting power.

21. Association as Agencies: An association can be considered as a kind of agency
through which members realise a common set of objectives. Social organisations
take action through elected representatives and officials
Durability of Association: An association can be permanent or temporary. Family,
religious associations, etc., are the examples of permanent association.

22. Types of Association
Various types of association are as follows:
•Political Association: The BJP, Congress, Communist party, etc.,
•Religious Association: The Ramakrishnan mission, Arya Samai, etc.,
•Student’s Association: The ABVP, SFI, etc.,
•Labourer’s Association: The AITUC, INTUC, etc.,
•Professional Association: The Indian Bar Council, Indian Medical Association, etc.,
•Economic Associational or Business Organisations: Hotel owners’ association,
Chamber of Commerce, The Consumer’s Co-operative Society, etc.,
•International Association: The Rotary Club, The Lions’ Club, YMCA, YWCA, etc.
•Student Association: AASW, ABVP and NSUI.

23. Institution
A structure or mechanism of social order and cooperation which
regulates the behavior of individuals within a given human community
is referred to as institution or social institution.
Institutions are recognized by certain social objectives and conduct
which change individual's life and behavior.
According to C.H. Cooley, "An institution is a complex integrated
organization of collective behavior established in the social heritage and
meeting some persistent need or want.
"According to Fichter, "An institution is a relatively permanent structure
of social patterns, role and relations that people enact in certain
sanctioned and unified ways for the purpose of satisfying basic social
needs".

24. Characteristics of Institution
1) Satisfaction of Specific Needs: Institution satisfies some specific needs. For example, family
satisfies the need of controlling the reproductive socializing children and facilitating
economic security to family members.
2) Prescription of Rules: The different rules and regulations that are to be followed are
provided by the institutions. For example, the relations between the husband and wife are
regulated by institution.
3) Abstractness: Institutions are neither visible nor tangible. Institutions are intangible in
nature. For example, war cannot be weighted, religion cannot be rated and marriage cannot be
kept in the museum.
4) Cultural Symbols: Institution includes cultural symbols. These symbols may be either
material or non-material. For example, a country has its own flag, emblem and national
anthem.
5) Universality: Social institutions are found in every society and every stage of social
development. Thus, social institution is universal in nature.
6) Social in Nature: Institutions are formed as a result of collective actions of people. Thus,
they are social in nature. Indeed, institutions are also developed by the secular and repetitive
social association of people.

25. 7. Institutions are the Controlling Mechanisms: Government laws, religion, state,
morality, etc., are the institutions which control the behavior of people.
8) Relatively Permanent: In most cases, institutions normally do not undergo rapid
or sudden changes. They undergo gradual and subtle changes. They become the
conservative elements in society over time. For example, religion, caste, etc.
9) Oral and Written: Institutions may be written or oral. In case of primitive
societies, they may be oral. While in current societies, they may be observed in
written and unwritten forms.
10) Interrelated: Institutions are interrelated with each other. In order to understand
one institution, one has to understand the other connected institution. There is an
interconnection between the religious, moral, educational, political, economic, and
other types of institutions.

26. Elements of Institutions
1) Individuals: Members of society performs various other functions on the
basis of which the society is divided into various strata such as, farmer,
manager, engineer, teacher, etc. For example, religious institution is consists
of clergy and followers. Likewise, parents and children constitute the family.
2) Material Structure: Material structure is one of the other important factors
of social institution in which different activities are performed by the
members. For example, machines, forms and stationery are included in
economic institution. Likewise, Temple, Mosque, etc., creates religious
institution.
3) System: System is the combination of different methods which organize the
individual and material structure of social institution. These methods govern
the human character as per specific principles. For example, democracy,
socialism, etc., are included in political institutions. Whereas, socialism or
capitalism are included in economic institutions.

27. Types of Institution
1) Crescive Institution: Crescive institutions are unconsciously
originated and involve matter related to marriages, property and
religion.
2) Enacted Institutions: Enacted institutions are established
consciously and are associated with the profits and economy and
include business and credit institutions.
3) Basic Institutions: Basic institutions are established for
maintaining the social order in society such as educational
institutions, family institutions, religious institutions, political
institutions and so on.

28. 5)Subsidiary Institutions: Subsidiary institutions are not aimed at
maintaining social order and are of complex nature.
Recreational activities and clubs are some of the common
examples of these institutions.
6) Operative Institutions: These are the institutions that organize
the patterns required for achieving any objective. For example,
institution of Industrialism.
7) Relative Institutions: Relative institutions assist in controlling
the customs and other behaviors but are not the part of
regulatory institutions.

29. Role or Function of Institution
1) Institutions Simplify Action for the Individual: An institution unifies
numerous parts of behavior into a coherent pattern, making highly complicated
and sometimes long-continued portions of social behavior more or less
automatic.
2) Institutions Provide a Means of Social Control: Institutions are the most
significant channels via which the society's approvals are applied to the
individual. In other words, institutions play a crucial role in the social control
process. All main institutions, including the family, school, religious
organizations, and the government, instill core values and concepts in children.
As a result, social institutions conveys majority of the regulations that deal
with basic living problems.
3) Institutions Provide a Role and Status for Individuals: Individuals are able
to get role and status through institutions such as some individuals work in
businesses, in the professions while others serve in public welfare whereas
some are expert in the field of literature, art or sports. Institutions, to some
extent, give a chance for the person to develop his own traits and decide his
position and status.

30. 4) Institutions Provide Order to the Society: Institutions provide
society with unity in addition to assisting individuals in meeting their
fundamental requirements. If there were no institutions to keep order,
the law of the jungle would rule.
5) Institutions act as Harmonizing Agencies in the Total Cultural
Configuration: The institutions are part of a larger cultural system or
configuration. The majority of the institutions in the system tend to
work together to support one another and the overall arrangement. As
a result, courting promotes marriage, which in turn promotes family
life, with all three institutions being mutually reliant.

31. Important Social Institutions Indian
1) Government: Government is a trusted institution which has the responsibility of
formulation and implementation of rules in any society. It also governs the
relationship with other societies.
2) Economy: The term economy means the whole structure of consumers, producers
and distributors of goods and services in a national, regional or local community. In
other words, an economy means an activity of producing and consuming goods and
services which indicates the way in which scarce resources are distributed in different
areas.
3) Education: Education is one of the essential components of socialization and
encourages social integration. Every society should educate its young people in order to
prepare them for adult life and to teach them societal values by the process of
education.

32. 4) Law: Law can be seen as the system of rules which is recognized by
particular country or community which regulates the action of societal
members and which may enforce through enforcements of punishments.
5) Health: Health institution is responsible for defining and dealing with
mental and physical disease among the members of the society. The aim
of the medical institution is to promote the health and total well-being of
people.
6) Family: A group comprising of children along with their parents
residing under a single roof, living as a unit, is termed as a family. It
generally involves all the successors of mutual forefathers.
7) Religion: An important blend of various beliefs and activities,
followed by large number of people, is known as religion. These beliefs
are related to the purpose and reason behind the existence of universe,
reason behind certain happenings, moral behavior of human beings, etc.

33. Organization
An organization is a group of people, who are organized in a
certain structure in order to satisfy a need or to attain a common
objective. Every organization follows a particular structure for its
management which specifies that who is going to do what.
According to Ralph C. Davis, "Organization is a group of people who
cooperate under the direction of leaderships, for the accomplishment of
a common end“
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, "An organisation is an articulation
of different parts which perform various functions; it is an active group
device for getting something done“

34. Nature of Organization
1) Social System: Social system can be understood as a set of interrelated and
independent components that forms a complete whole. In an organization,
social system consists of people of the society which is organized by a
distinctive pattern of relations.
i) Feudal System: Established in the 8th Century in Europe, Feudal system is an
economic and political system having its foundation on the relation between lord
and vassal, and holding of land. This system is usually characterized by forfeiture,
homage, legal and military service of tenants.
ii) Patriarchate: Patriarchate is a type of social system under which male is
designated with the title of family head, and it is his surname which is further
passed to future generations.
iii) Matriarchate: Matriarchate is a type of social system under which female is
designated with the title of family head, and it is her surname which is further
passed to the future generations

35. iv Meritocracy: Meritocracy is a type of social system under which
the person having superior intelligence and intellects is empowered
with all the societal powers.
v) Class Structure: Under the class structure, there exist different
classes within a society.
vi) Segregation: Segregation is a type of social system under which
separate and distinct facilities are provided to the minority groups.
2) Mutual Interest: When various groups are able to negotiate
strategies, the organizational relationships tend to be strong. Mutual
interests are the interests that are related to the achievement of
respective goals and are common to the involved parties. When the
mutual interests are shared among different people, the organisation
becomes stronger as a shared concern.

36. 2.1.6.2. Elements of Organisation Key elements of organisation are shown in figure
2.1:PeopleIndividualGroupEnvironmentGovernmentCompetitionSocial
PressuresStructureJobsRelationshipsOrganisational BehaviourTechnologyMachineryComputer
Hardware and SoftwareFigure 2.1: Elements of Organisation1) People: The internal social system
of any organisation is made up of the healthcare people who work in it. This comprises of
individuals, large and small groups, informal and formal groups. It is the organisation that exists
to serve its people and not vice versa. Today's organisations have changed and have become
more diverse than before. Present day healthcare employees come up with a broad range of
talents, educational backgrounds and perspectives. Hence, the nursing leaders are required to
transform themselves with the workforce in order to attain maximum efficiency.2) Structure:
Relationships and roles of people in the organisation are defined by structure. People working in
an organisation perform different roles and have different relationships with each other. Division
of work is done based on the capabilities and designation of the healthcare employees so that
healthcare

37. technology to build buildings, design machines, develop work processes and collect resources.
Technology in turn helps people to perform better. But technology has some side effects like it is
costly and limits people in certain ways, i.e., it makes them dependent on machines. So,
technology has both pros and cons.4) Environment: Operations of all organisations take place
under internal and external environment. A healthcare organisation is a small part of a large
system which contains elements such as government, family and other organisations. Changes in
the external environment affect the individual organisations such as healthcare, schools or
factories. It also affects working conditions and people's behaviour and provides struggle for
resources and power.2.2. PERSONAL DISORGANISATION2.2.1. IntroductionWhen an individual's
behaviour is not in accordance with the social norms then it is referred to as personal
disorganisation. In this condition, the individual is unable to meet the requirements of the society
in which he/she lives and develops personality problems. As a result he becomes personally
disorganised. It causes social rejection which is expressed by numerous ways. The individual can
react in a variety of ways. He may respond either positively or negatively. Therefore, personal
disorganisation can be in the form of milder or more significant mental disorders like psychoses or
neuroses.According to Prem Sharma Modgil, "Personal disorganisation represents the deviant
behaviour of an individual".2.2.2. Characteristics of Personal DisorganisationCharacteristics of
personal disorganisation are as follows:1) Personal disorganisation occurs when certain rules and
regulations are not followed by the individual. These can be specific custom or a way of life in
general. Thus, personal organisation is uncertain in nature.2) It arises when there is a sense of
mistrust among group members. Mistrust can lead to disagreements and causes personal
disorganisation.3) It indicates more individuality because individuals experiencing personal
disorganisation showcase a diverse range of interests and attitudes. Forexample, a personally
disorganised person may not observe the fasting dayswhich may create a problem between him
and other members of the society

38. and past disorganisation history who is suffering from chronic disorganisation. Messy, packrat o
collector are the terms associated with this disorganisation.2) Situational Disorganisation: Whe
big life events interrupt existing organisational structures, this is known as situational
disorganisation. Most of the time, this is just transitory, and once the incident has passed, mos
individuals are able to resume their normal routine. A new kid in the family, a move, or an illne
is all examples of situational disorganisation.3) Habitual Disorganisation: Bad behaviours that
have evolved over time cause habitual disorganisation. This is a self-inflicted state of
disorganisation. Procrastination and overscheduling our lives are frequently to blame.4)
Historical Disorganisation: An individual's upbringing has an influence on historical
disorganisation. People frequently imitate the setting in which they grew up. They were never
taught any organisational skills that would enable them to live a more organised lifestyle.5)
Social Disorganisation: The social environment influences the social disorganisation. It is the
standard to accumulate more belongings than neighbour, which leads to having more than one
can use or keep in one area, which leads to hiring a storage unit or, worse such as purchasing a
bigger home.2.2.4. Aspects of Personal DisorganisationFollowing are the main aspects of
personal disorganisation:1) Mild Disapproval: In this aspect of personal disorganisation, social
disapproval of an individual is not so aggressive. As a result, positive response can be shown by
the individual towards the society. This type of personal disorganisation has very influence on
the social orders.2) Major Disapproval: This type of personal disorganisation is related to violen
social disapproval and despite that individuals may show some positive responses towards soc
norms.3) Retreatism: This can be seen as the person is living in the non-real worldand avoiding
reality. The response of the person towards the socialdisapproval is quite subjective and the
person goes back to the personallydefined inner space. These activities will not be accepted by
society. Thus,the individual finds himself in the mechanical world resulting in the loss
ofindividuality and follows the addictive life by going for substance abuse,alcoholism, and

39. where the individual lives. For example, a person may have a mental disability by birth that
prevents him to be united with society.2) Influence of Others: An individual can be personally
disorganised by the influence of his/her peers. The habits and ideals of an individual are greatly
influenced by his/her peers.3) Financial Condition: The financial condition of an individual is also
a reason of personal disorganisation. An individual can be personally disorganised by the excess
or lack of money.4) Family Problems: Family problems may cause personal disorganisation. A
person may be personally disorganised when he does not get requiredemotional support from
the family when he needed it most. As a result, the person isolates himself from the family and
the society.5) Unemployment and Poverty: An individual may also be personally disorganised in
case of unemployment and poverty. In this condition, individual's main focus is sustenance and
thus, he/she does not follow the rules of the society.6) Consumption of Alcohols and Drugs:
Consumption of alcohols and drugs is also a reason for personal disorganisation.7) Modern
Industrialisation: Personal disorganisation can also be caused by modern industrialisation.
Because of modern industrialisation, an individual may not follow his/her own traditions and
customs.2.3. SOCIAL GROUP2.3.1. Meaning and Definition of Social GroupA social group is
formed when two or more people interact deliberately to reach a common consensus. Group
members are mutually dependent and sensitive to the needs of other members of the group.
There are groups in every organisation and they not only affect the behaviour of its members,
but also influence the other groups and the whole organisation. Such groups are formed by the
organisation, as well as by its members for their own satisfaction. Therefore, these groups are
necessary for the functioning of organisations.According to Stephen Robbins, "A group may be
defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to
achieve particular objectives".According to Marvin Shaw, "A group comprises, of two or more
persons who interact with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is
influenced by each other person".

40. collective identity and one or more shared dispositions with associated normative
strength".2.3.2. Characteristics of Social GroupsCharacteristics of social group include:1) Two or
More Persons: There should be minimum two persons to form a group because a single person
cannot interact. However, there is no definite limit of the maximum number of people in a
group, but the group size may be determined by rules and regulations of the organisation in this
context. It can even depend on the communication occurring between the members in case of
informal groups.2) Collective Identity: Group members should be aware of their group
membership. Each group member must know that he is a member of specific group and hence
should act as an active participant.It is the understanding of each other which differentiates a
group from an unorganised collection of individuals. In the case of collection of individuals, they
are usually not aware of each other and even if they are aware, they may not interact with each
other in a constructive manner.3) Interaction: Group members interact among themselves. Each
member in a group shares his/her ideas with other members, and this sharing of thoughts can
take place in person, in writing, over the telephone, through internet, or by any other means of
communication. Though, it is not essential that all group members should interact all the time,
but each member must interact time-to-time with other group members.4) Shared Goal
Interest: Group members must support the achievement ofshared goals. However, it is not
necessary that each member always supports or agrees with the overall objectives of the group.
A group has a variety of goals or interests, so each member of the group can share at least one
of the concerns of the group. It is the consensus of the goals of a group, which connects the
members with each other and keep them together.2.3.3. Classification of Social GroupsSocial
groups can be classified into following types:1 ) Primary and Secondary Groups: Primary groups
are characterised by close, face-to-face association and collaboration among members.
Generally, there is a high degree of mutual dependency among members. Primary groups are
also the fundamental source of socialisation in society. This is thecentral place for development

41. an individual identifies or to which he likes to belong, e.g., friends, family, etc.3) In-Groups
and Out-Groups: In-groups correspond to a group of people who hold the existing values in
a society or workplace, or at most, occupy a central place in social functioning, e.g., team
members, family members, etc.Out-groups are the masses which are considered as
secondary or insignificant in the culture, e.g., street performers, hawkers.4) Interest and
Friendship Groups: Interest group consists of people who may unite to achieve a specific
objective with which they are associated.Friendship groups consist of people who have
some common characteristics. People belonging to a particular region or holding a particular
view point or speaking similar language are inclined to form friendship groups.5) Formal and
Informal Groups: When groups are formed by the organisations themselves to achieve some
particular set of goals or to complete certain tasks, these groups are called as formal groups.
Departments, divisions, taskforce, project groups, quality circles, committees are some
examples of formal groups.Informal groups are the groups, which are formed in response to
the need for social contact. These groups are formed internally within the organisation, or
spontaneously by the members themselves. They are created to meet the social
requirements related to the job. Several common examples of informal groups are "tea or
coffee groups" and clubs.6) Temporary and Permanent Groups: Temporary groups are
formed for fulfilling definite goals. They have a very small lifespan. They cease to exist after
attaining the desired objectives. Problem-solving and discussing ideas are the main roles of
temporary groups. Meetings, committees are examples of such groups.Permanent groups
consist of group activities, group performances, job assignments, etc. A team is a permanent
group. Trade unions and commercial associations are examples of permanent groups.7)
Nominal and Non-Performing Groups: Nominal groups are problem-solvinggroups. Group
members exchange their ideas in a planned manner and discusstheir different options in
order to select the best option. This is a nominal groupbecause employees are members of

42. 2.4.1. Meaning and Definition of Social ProcessHuman beings are social animals. Men cannot
live in isolation. They live in. different types of groups and associations. The behaviour of a
person in a group is influenced by the behaviour of other members of the group. This
interaction is the core of social life. Social interaction can be seen as the dynamic interaction of
a person with different social set-ups. It is a fundamental activity that forms the human nature
and social set-up. These types of social interactions are termed as social processes.Social
process is the way through which people establish relationship with other and interact. It refers
to those actions, activities and operations which involve the interaction between people. People
interact, adjust and establish relationships with others through social interaction. Hence, social
process and social interaction are closely linked with each other.According to Horton Hunt,
"Social process refers to the repetitive form of behaviour which is commonly found in social
life".According to Ginsberg, "Social processes mean the various modes of interaction between
individuals or groups including cooperation and conflict, social differentiation and integration,
development, arrest and decay".According to Gillin and Gillin, "Social process means those way
of interacting which we can observe when individuals and groups meet and establish system of
relationships or what happens when changes disturb already existing modes of life".2.4.2. Form
of Social ProcessThe major forms of social process are:Forms of Social
ProcessCooperationConflictCompetitionAccommodationAssimilationIsolation2.4.3.
CooperationThe word 'cooperation" is a combination of two Latin words 'Co" which means
'together' and 'Operari" which means "to work'. Thus, cooperation means working together to
attain common goals or objectives. When people work together to achieve common goals then
it is referred to as cooperation. It can be seen as one of the basic processes of social life. It is an
integrating activity.

43. An individual cannot survive without cooperation. Thus, it is very important for the life of human
being. It is required for the fulfilment of both social and psychological needs.According to Merrill
and Eldredge, "Cooperation is a form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work
together to gain a common end".According to Green, "Cooperation is the continuous and common
endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task or to realise a goal that is commonly
cherished".According to Fairchild, "Cooperation is the process by which the individuals or groups
combine their effort, in a more or less organised way for the attainment of common
objective".2.4.3.1. Characteristics of CooperationCharacteristics of cooperation are as follows:1)
Social Interaction: It is a type of social interaction which interacts with two or more individuals and
groups.2) Conscious Process: It is conscious process which requires that individualswork
consciously.3) Personal Process: It is a personal process in which individuals and groups personally
meet with each other for the fulfilment of common goal.4) Continuous Process: It is a continuous
process which never ends. There is a sense of continuity in the collective efforts.5) Universal
Process: Cooperation is a universal process which is found in every groups, societies and
nations.2.4.3.2. Types of CooperationTypes of cooperation are explained below:1) Direct
Cooperation: It indicates direct relationship between individuals or groups. In direct cooperation,
people do similar things together such as, working together, playing together, travelling together,
etc. When people directly cooperate with each other for the fulfilment of common goal then it is
referred to as direct cooperation.2) Indirect Cooperation: In this type of cooperation, people work
separately to achieve the common goal. It is based on the principle of specialisation of functions
and division of labour. In indirect cooperation people do different things together for achieving a
common goal. For example, lecturer, office assistant, typist, accountant and librarian of a college
perform different tasks together to achieve the common goal.3) Primary Cooperation: This type of
cooperation is generally found in primary groups and playgroups of kids. It is a type of cooperation
in which people work together without any self-interest. In primary cooperation, every member

44. Tertiary cooperation is a type of cooperation in which mutual adjustments are made by various
groups to meet a particular situation. It is voluntary in nature where people or groups coopera
with each other on the basis of their own interest. People involved in this cooperation are selfi
and opportunistic. For example, cooperation between two political parties to defeat their rivalr
party is a type of tertiary cooperation.2.4.3.3. Importance of Cooperation Following are the
importance of cooperation:1) Promoting Psychological and Emotional Stability: It promotes
emotional and psychological stability of the group members. Cooperation provides harmoniou
environment in which every member of the group works together. Thus, heavy and boring wor
may seem interesting if the work is distributed among individuals.2) Helps to Achieve Higher
Productivity: People or groups who work in cooperation may be more productive than those
who work individually. In a competitive group, every member achieves higher productivity whe
they compete with other members of the group.3) Helps Society to Progress: Cooperation play
a very important role in the success of agriculture, industry, science and technology,
communication, transport, etc. A person who cooperates with other may seems to be
enthusiastic. This can be seen as the main aspects of people's collective life.4) Helps to Solve
Real Life Problems: Most real-life issues can easily be resolved through cooperation than
competition. Cooperation is mostly required in hospitals where patients, physicians and nurses
all are cooperating with each other. There is no competition within the hospital. However, ther
might be a competition between different hospitals to attract the patients. Coordination is
required for the success of hospital.2.4.4. CompetitionCompetition is a dissociative social
process. It is the most fundamental form of social struggle or opposition. Competition can be
defined as the struggle between two or more individuals for the same object that is limited. Fo
example, every individual of the society has to face competition for social status, jobs, fame,
power and various other things which cannot be received by asking. Therefore, competition is
everywhere that can prevail in number of ways. It may vary interms of the scope, extensivenes

45. in which we strive against each other for the possession of or use of some limited material and
non-material good".2.4.4.1. Characteristics of CompetitionCharacteristics of competition are as
follows:1) Continuous Process: There is no endpoint of competition. People always compete
with each other for the power, status, wealth, etc. Therefore, competition is a continuous
process.2) Universal Process: It exists in all classes of people such as, doctors, students, farmers,
lawyers, as well as all types of societies. For example, doctors compete for patients, students
compete for marks, lawyers compete for clients, political parties compete for power, etc.3)
Impersonal Activity: In most cases, competition is aimed at achieving a certain goal rather than
competing against one another. It might happen even when no one is aware of the existence of
others. Sometimes, people involved in competition are completely unfamiliar with one another.
As a result, it is an impersonal activity.In some cases, competition can be personal. Competition
between two people for the election of any position in office is the example of personal
competition.4) Unconscious Activity: Competition is an unconscious activity because sometimes
people have no information about their competitors but their focus remains on the goal
accomplishment.5) Constructive or Destructive Competition: Competition may be both healthy
and unhealthy. There will be destructive competition when one of the two or more rivals tries to
win at the expense of others. This type of competition can be seen among large businesses and
capitalists in order to bankrupt small businesses. However, in case of constructive competition,
there is a mutual assistance and stimulation.2.4.4.2. Types of CompetitionFollowing are the
types of competition:1) Social Competition: Social competition is mostly observed in open
societies where people compete to get higher status in the society. In this competition, ability,
merit, talents and capacities of individuals are recognised.2) Economic Competition: Economic
competition is the most essential and, at the same time, the most ferocious kind of competition.
It may be seen in the manufacturing, distribution, and consumption of commodities.

46. in human history.5) Racial competition: Competition between Whites and Blacks, Aryans
and Dravidians, etc., are the examples of racial competition.2.4.4.3. Function/ Role of
CompetitionFollowing are the roles or function of competition:1) Assignment of Status to
Individuals: Competition determines the role and status of the different people in any
community. There is a relationship between social status and competition. Most of the
people compete to retain their status while others compete to improve their status.2)
Source of Motivation: Competition motivates people to attain recognition and to win prize
in the society. It also increases the efficiency of the people because they work hard to
achieve their goals.3) Contributes to Socio-Economic Progress: Fair competition is essential
for welfare of human. It is a sign of progress in both social and economic terms. The
competitive spirit of the people allows all types of advancement. Scientific breakthroughs
and inventions are the results of competition.4) Provides for New Experience: It provides an
opportunity to the people so that they can address their needs for better recognition and
new experience.Difference between Cooperation and CompetitionCooperation1)
Cooperation is the act of working together to achieve a common goal.2) Co-operation
necessitates attributes such as natural awareness. understanding, helpfulness, and a selfless
attitude.3) The scope of cooperation is limitless.4) Cooperation is generally useful because it
usually yields excellent results.5) People are more satisfied and fulfilled when they work
together.2.4.5. ConflictCompetition1) Competition is a process in which individuals or
organisations compete for a specific aim or objective.2) Self-confidence, high ideals, an
adventurous spirit, and a willingness to endure and strive are all required forcompetition.3)
Competition is bound by rules and regulation and thus has limits.4) Competition that is
constructive is always good, but competition that is uncontrolled is always detrimental or
hazardous.5) Competition can result in both satisfaction and discontent.Conflict refers to
demonstration of anger, revolt, negative behaviour, violence, enmity and misconception. It is

47. organisation and their external environments. It crops up when one party gets the notion that
the other party might adversely affect its wellbeing.2.4.5.1. Types of conflictTypes of conflict are
as follows:1) Intra-Personal/Intra-Individual Conflict: Intra-personal conflict is psychological in
nature and crops up within the personality of a person. Very often, person is not able to realise
that he is in a state of conflict. Though, it might be evident or latent. This type of conflict is
usually associated with the goals an individual intends to achieve or the roles he wants to
perform. Intra- personal conflicts are of three kinds:i) Conflict Originating from Frustration:
When a person is not able to achieve his target due to certain hindrances, he becomes
frustrated. These hindrances can be either covert (inward or mental-socio psychological) or
overt (outward or physical). Hence, frustration model helps in interpreting the general
behaviour as well as the specific factors related to on-the-job behaviour.When a person is
frustrated, he acquires any of the following defence techniques:a) Aggression: This refers to the
attack of the symbolical or physical barriers.b) Withdrawal: This refers to backing-off from the
barrier. In such cases, the person tries to stay away from the circumstances which may lead to
conflict.c) Fixation: This refers to the continuous effort to crack and rise above the obstacle.d)
Compromise: This refers to the exploration of a new objective.ii) Conflict Originating from Goals:
Sometimes, goals having both positive and negative characteristics become a source of conflict.
Opposing goals also lead to conflict. In case of frustration, person is not able to reach his target
due to obstacles in his path whereas in case of goal conflict, two or more goals are in conflict
with each other.iii) Conflict Originating from Role: A person performs numerous roles. Even
though each of his roles inside the organisation is crucial to his behavioural study, yet his
organisational role is more crucial. All the employees working in the healthcare organisation are
expected to act in a desired manner. When 'what a role demands' is significantly different from
the 'behaviour that the health care employee projects', a role conflict originates. This happens
because expectation of either the healthcare employee or the healthcare organisation remains

48. etc. They might also enter into conflict because of differences in opinions, morals or
attitudes. In an healthcare organisation, disparity among healthcare employees arises due to
the following reasons:i) Personal Differences: Difference in culture, upbringing, family values
and socialisation processes give a different identity to every individual. Since the education,
family background and morals of individuals may vary significantly, and hence become the
root cause of conflict.Discrepancies cropping up as a result of these differences become very
emotional and adopt moral nuances. A minor discrepancy regarding who is rationally correct
gets converted into a major conflict regarding moral values.ii) Information Deficiency: Lack of
proper communication in the organisation is the basis for this conflict. The parties involved in
the conflict might have different information about the same thing or even wrong
information. This source of conflict, unlike personal differences is more rational and can be
easily rectified by providing correct and timely information.iii) Role Incompatibility: Both
inter-group conflicts and intra-individual role conflicts are the originators of this kind of
conflict. In today's horizontal organisational set-up, the roles and responsibilities of nursing
leader are excessively inter-dependent, although the individual responsibilities of the nursing
leader may be mismatched.iv) Environmental Stress: A stressful environment enhances this
kind ofconflict. Downsizing, limited resources, increasing competitive pressure, technological
advancements, etc., are important sources of environmental stress.2.4.5.2. Measurements to
Overcome/ Conflict Resolution StrategiesAnyone in the nursing profession who is confronted
with interpersonal conflict has a number of choices for dealing with it.Following are the five
ways or strategies in which conflict can be resolved:1) Competing: Nurse with competing
conflict resolution strategies have a tendency to be overly assertive and focused on "winning"
the arguments rather than finding the best potential solution.2) Obliging: People-pleasers are
nurses who utilise obliging as their primary conflict resolution strategy. Obliging places a high
importance on others while placing a low value on oneself, sometimes expressing low self-

49. High (Cooperative Behaviour)AccommodatingConcern for
OtherLowCompromisingAvoiding(Uncooperative Behaviour)59LowConcern for
SelfCompetingHigh(Unassertive Behaviour)Figure: Conflict Resolution Strategies(Assertive
Behaviour)3) Avoiding: The nurses who choose to avoid all the sources that can result in confli
are said to have avoiding as their conflict resolution strategy. Avoiding, just like obliging,
increases the likelihood of a group adopting unexamined (or under examined) ideas, which can
be harmful in the long-term.4) Compromising: Nurses who approach interpersonal conflict
resolution from a compromise mind-set instead of a "me versus you" mind-set seek to find a
solution that makes both parties at least somewhat happy. Both parties willhave something th
want and will be able to go on with developing a solution as a result of this.5) Collaborating: In
collaborating conflict resolution strategy, nurse incorporate others ideas into their own. This
method increases group buy-in and general satisfaction with the final decision.2.4.5.3.
Difference between Competition and Conflict Difference between competition and conflict is a
follows:1Competition) Competition is impersonal in nature.2) Competition is a continuous
process.3) Competition is unconscious activity and people involved in competition do not know
about their competitors.4) Competition is based on non-violence.5) Competition encourages
hard work.6) Competition can be both positive and negative.7) Competition increases the
occurrence of cooperation.ConflictConflict is personal in nature.Conflict is not a continuous
process. It is a specific event in time.Conflict is a conscious process and people involved in
conflicts are fully aware of each other.Conflicts may involve violent methods.Conflict discourag
hard work.Conflict may bring negative results.Conflict is an end to cooperation.Copyrigated

50. Accommodation can be defined as the process of adjusting oneself into a new environment.
a process of social adjustment. Many sociologists define accommodation as the process thro
which people who are once in conflict can work together in a common place.According to M
Iver and Page, "Accommodation refers particularly to the process on which man attains a sen
of harmony with his environment".According to Lundberg, "Accommodation has been used t
designate the adjustments which people in groups make to relieve the fatigue and tensions o
competition and conflict".2.4.6.1. Characteristics of AccommodationCharacteristics of
accommodation are mentioned below:1) Natural Result of Conflict: Accommodation is the fi
outcome of the conflict. People who are aware of the importance of accommodation are eas
accommodated. Accommodation is not achieved in those cases where some sort of conflict
present.2) Conscious or Unconscious Activity: The adjustment of an individual with social
environment is commonly unconscious. Accommodation of a new born baby with his family,
accommodation of a person within the society, etc., is the examples of unconscious
accommodation. It becomes conscious only in those cases where people involved in conflict
make efforts to end the conflict.3) Continuous Process: Accommodation is not limited to any
social event. People accommodate with various situations throughout their life. Thus, it is a
continuous activity.4) Universal Process: It is present in every society and in every situation. A
society cannot run smoothly if it continuously deals with the conflict.5) Associative Social
Process: It brings unity and integrity within the society. It also boosts the mutual relationship
between the people and groups. Thus, it is an associative social process.6) Mixture of both L
and Hate: Accommodation involves both love and hate because cooperation is obtained thro
love and conflict results from the hate.2.4.6.2. Forms or Methods of AccommodationAs per
Gillin and Gillin, there are following methods or forms of accommodation:1) Coercion: Coerc
means use of force. In coercion, two parties exist and one party is stronger than other. In this
type of accommodation, the weak party accepts the terms of the stronger party because of t