The skeletal system consists of bones, joints, cartilage, and ligaments that make up the framework of the body. It has several functions including support, protection, movement, storage, and blood cell formation. There are 206 bones in the adult human body that are classified based on their shape as long, short, flat, irregular, or sesamoid bones. Bones are living tissues that undergo remodeling throughout life. The skeletal system is divided into the axial skeleton, which includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage, and the appendicular skeleton, consisting of the upper and lower limbs.

1. Anatomy of Skeletal System

2. The Skeletal SystemThe Skeletal System
Slide 5.1Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Parts of the skeletal system
• Bones (skeleton)
• Joints
• Cartilages
• Ligaments (bone to bone)(tendon=bone to
muscle)
• Divided into two divisions
• Axial skeleton
• Appendicular skeleton – limbs and girdle

4. Functions of Skeletal System
• SUPPORT: Hard framework that supports and anchors
the soft organs of the body.
• PROTECTION: Surrounds organs such as the brain and
spinal cord.
• MOVEMENT: Allows for muscle attachment therefore the
bones are used as levers.
• STORAGE: Minerals and lipids are stored within bone
material.
• BLOOD CELL FORMATION: The bone marrow is
responsible for blood cell production.

5. Bones of the Human BodyBones of the Human Body
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• The skeleton has 206 bones
• Two basic types of bone tissue
• Compact bone
• Homogeneous
• Spongy bone
• Small needle-like
pieces of bone
• Many open spaces
Figure 5.2b

6. Classification of BonesClassification of Bones
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• Long bones
• Typically longer than wide
• Have a shaft with heads at both ends
• Contain mostly compact bone
• Examples: Femur, humerus

7. Classification of BonesClassification of Bones
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• Short bones
• Generally cube-shape
• Contain mostly spongy bone
• Examples: Carpals, tarsals

8. Classification of Bones on theClassification of Bones on the
Basis of ShapeBasis of Shape
Slide 5.4cCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 5.1

9. Classification of BonesClassification of Bones
Slide 5.5aCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Flat bones
• Thin and flattened
• Usually curved
• Thin layers of compact bone around a layer
of spongy bone
• Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum

10. Classification of BonesClassification of Bones
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• Irregular bones
• Irregular shape
• Do not fit into other bone classification
categories
• Example: Vertebrae and hip

11. Classification of BonesClassification of Bones
• Sesamoid bones:
• Small bone
• It can change the direction of tendon
• Eg. Knee caps(patellae)

12. Classification of Bones on theClassification of Bones on the
Basis of ShapeBasis of Shape
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Figure 5.1

13. Gross Anatomy of a Long BoneGross Anatomy of a Long Bone
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• Diaphysis
• Shaft
• Composed of
compact bone
• Epiphysis
• Ends of the bone
• Composed mostly of
spongy bone Figure 5.2a

14. Structures of a Long BoneStructures of a Long Bone
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• Periosteum
• Outside covering of
the diaphysis
• Fibrous connective
tissue membrane
• Sharpey’s fibers
• Secure periosteum to
underlying bone
• Arteries
• Supply bone cells
with nutrients
Figure 5.2c

15. Structures of a Long BoneStructures of a Long Bone
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• Articular cartilage
• Covers the
external surface of
the epiphyses
• Made of hyaline
cartilage
• Decreases friction
at joint surfaces Figure 5.2a

16. Structures of a Long BoneStructures of a Long Bone
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• Medullary cavity
• Cavity of the shaft
• Contains yellow
marrow (mostly fat)
in adults
• Contains red marrow
(for blood cell
formation) in infants Figure 5.2a

17. Bone Markings - Page 119Bone Markings - Page 119
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• Surface features of bones
• Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons,
and ligaments
• Passages for nerves and blood vessels
• Categories of bone markings
• Projections and processes – grow out from the
bone surface
• Depressions or cavities – indentations

18. Microscopic Anatomy of BoneMicroscopic Anatomy of Bone
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• Osteon (Haversian System)
• A unit of bone
• Central (Haversian) canal
• Opening in the center of an osteon
• Carries blood vessels and nerves
• Perforating (Volkman’s) canal
• Canal perpendicular to the central canal
• Carries blood vessels and nerves

19. Microscopic Anatomy of BoneMicroscopic Anatomy of Bone
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Figure 5.3

20. Microscopic Anatomy of BoneMicroscopic Anatomy of Bone
Slide 5.11aCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Lacunae
• Cavities containing
bone cells
(osteocytes)
• Arranged in
concentric rings
• Lamellae
• Rings around the
central canal
• Sites of lacunae Figure 5.3

21. Microscopic Anatomy of BoneMicroscopic Anatomy of Bone
Slide 5.11bCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Canaliculi
• Tiny canals
• Radiate from the
central canal to
lacunae
• Form a transport
system
Figure 5.3

22. Types of Bone CellsTypes of Bone Cells
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• Osteocytes
• Mature bone cells
• Osteoblasts
• Bone-forming cells
• Osteoclasts
• Bone-destroying cells
• Break down bone matrix for remodeling and
release of calcium
• Bone remodeling is a process by both
osteoblasts and osteoclasts

23. Bone formation(osteogenesis)
• Osification- two process
1.Intramembranous
2.Endochondral ossification

24. Bone formation(osteogenesis)
• Intramembranous: -within membrane
• Stepa of process-mesenchymal cell-osteoprogenitor cell-
osteoblast, the cluster called center of ossification.
• Osteoblast –secrets matrix
• Osteocytes –stop matrix secretion
• Deposition of calcium and other minerals on matrix to
harden it.
• Bone matrix form tuberculae
• It appears like spongy bone

25. Endochondral phase – with in
cartilage

26. Changes in the Human SkeletonChanges in the Human Skeleton
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• In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline
cartilage
• During development, much of this cartilage
is replaced by bone
• Cartilage remains in isolated areas
• Bridge of the nose
• Parts of ribs
• Joints

27. Bone GrowthBone Growth
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• Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long
bone during childhood
• New cartilage is continuously formed
• Older cartilage becomes ossified
• Cartilage is broken down
• Bone replaces cartilage

28. Bone GrowthBone Growth
Slide 5.13bCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Bones are remodeled and lengthened
until growth stops
• Bones change shape somewhat
• Bones grow in width

29. Long Bone Formation and GrowthLong Bone Formation and Growth
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Figure 5.4a

30. Bone FracturesBone Fractures
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• A break in a bone
• Types of bone fractures
• Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not
penetrate the skin
• Open (compound) fracture – broken bone
penetrates through the skin
• Bone fractures are treated by reduction
and immobilization
• Realignment of the bone

31. Common Types of FracturesCommon Types of Fractures
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Table 5.2

32. Repair of Bone FracturesRepair of Bone Fractures
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• Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is
formed
• Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to
form a callus
• Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a
bony callus
• Bony callus is remodeled to form a
permanent patch

33. Stages in the Healing of a BoneStages in the Healing of a Bone
FractureFracture
Slide 5.19Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 5.5

34. The Axial SkeletonThe Axial Skeleton
Slide 5.20aCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Forms the longitudinal part of the body
• Divided into three parts
• Skull
• Vertebral column
• Bony thorax

35. The Axial SkeletonThe Axial Skeleton
Slide 5.20bCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 5.6

36. The SkullThe Skull
Slide 5.21aCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Two sets of bones
• Cranium
• Facial bones
• Bones are joined by sutures
• Only the mandible is attached by a
freely movable joint

38. SuturesSutures
• Sutures – Immovable joints that join skull bones together
• Form boundaries between skull bones
• Four sutures:
• Coronal – between parietal and frontal
• Sagittal– between parietal bones
• Lambdoid – between the parietal and occipital
• Squamous – between the parietal and temporal
Fontanels – usually ossify by 2 years of age
Anterior fontanel- closed at 18 month
Posterior fontanel- closed at 2 month

39. Frontal
(Coronal)
Sagittal
Squamous
Lambdoid
Sutures

40. •skull = 22 bones
•cranium = 8 bones: frontal, occipital, 2 temporals, 2 parietals, sphenoid and
ethmoid
•facial bones = 14 bones: nasals, maxillae, zygomatics, mandible, lacrimals,
palatines, inferior nasal conchae, vomer.
•skull forms a larger cranial cavity
-also forms the nasal cavity, the orbits, paranasal sinuses
mandible and auditory ossicles are the only movable skull bones
•cranial bones also: attach to membranes called meninges
-stabilize positions of the brain, blood vessels
-outer surface provides large areas for muscle attachment that
move the head or provide facial expressions
The Adult SkullThe Adult Skull

41. Frontal
Frontal View

42. Frontal bone
• Bone of fore head
• Forms orbital cavity and supraorbital margins
• Prominent ridges above the eyes and supraorbital
foramen.

43. Parietal
Lateral View

44. Parietal bone
• Two bone
• Greater portion of sides and roof of cranial cavity.
• Inner surface is concave and grooved by blood and brain
vessels

45. Temporal bone
• Two bone
• Present on lateral side
• Squamous part is flat
• Articulate with parietal bone
• Zygomatic process articulates with zygomatic bone
• Petrous portion – floor of cranium
• Temporal articulates with mandible –temporomandibular
joints
• Posterior inferior portion called – mastoid portion
• The process called mastoid process
• Mandibular fossa- between squamous and petrous portion

46. Occipital
Lateral View

47. Occipital bone
• Forms back of the head
• Foramen magnum (large hole)inferior part of the brain-
spinal cord passes to cranial cavity.
• Occipital condyles are oval process with convex surface,
present on each side of foramen magnum – articulates
with first cervical vertebra.

48. Sphenoid bone
• Wedge shape, at middle part of the base of skull
• Articulate with all bones of cranium
• Middle portion called hypophysial fossa
• Greater and lesser wings projects laterally on anterior and
posterior side
• Pterygoid process on inferior surface.

49. Nasal
Frontal View

50. Nasal bone
• Two bones
• Flat bones
• It forms lateral and superior surface of the bridge of nose

51. Vomer
Frontal View

52. Vomer bone
• Triangular bone
• It forms the inferior and posterior part of the nasal septum.
• Plate of ethmoid, septal cartilage, vomer and parts of
palatine bone, maxilla forms nasal septum

53. Zygoma
Frontal View

54. Zygomatic or cheek bone
• It forms the prominence of cheeks and part of the floor
and lateral walls of orbital cavities.

55. Maxilla
Frontal View

56. Maxilla or upper jaw bone
• Paired maxillae jointed to form the maxillary joints
• It forms floor of orbits, part of the lateral wall, floor of nasal
cavity, most of the hard palate.
• Forms anterior three quarters of hard palate

57. Mandible
Frontal View

58. Mandible
• Largest, strongest, movable joint
• Helps for chewing
• Curved bone, consist of body and rami(branch).
• Ramus devides into the chydylar process to
temporal bone and make temporomendibular
joint, other is coronoid process attach with
muscles and ligaments
• Angle and mandibular notch between processes

59. Lacrimal bone
• Two in number
• Finger nail shaped
• Its surface is thin and rough
• Posterior lateral to the nasal bone
• Lacrimal bone contains a foramen, through which
nasolacrimal duct /tear duct pass.

60. Palatine bone
• Two in number
• L-shaped
• Horizontal part joins to hard palate
• Perpendicular part projects upward to form lateral wall of
nasal cavity

61. Inferior conchae
• Two in number- scroll-like bone
• A part of lateral wall
• Filters and warm the air

62. The Hyoid BoneThe Hyoid Bone
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• U shaped /hourse shoe
shaped
• The only bone that
does not articulate with
another bone
• Serves as a moveable
base for the tongue
Figure 5.12

65. Figure 6.4 Sectional Anatomy of the
Skull, Part I

67. 14 Facial Bones

68. The SkullThe Skull
Slide 5.21bCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 5.7

69. Bones of the SkullBones of the Skull
Slide 5.22Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 5.11

70. Human Skull, Superior ViewHuman Skull, Superior View
Slide 5.23Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 5.8

71. Human Skull, Inferior ViewHuman Skull, Inferior View
Slide 5.24Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 5.9

72. Paranasal Sinuses
• part of the nasal complex
• Paired cavities in ethmoid,
sphenoid, frontal and maxillary
• Lined with mucous
membranes and open into
nasal cavity though openings
called ostia
• Resonating chambers for
voice, lighten the skull
• Sinusitis is inflammation of the
membrane (allergy)
• infection can easily spread
from one sinus to the other
through the nasal cavity
• can also spread to other
tissues
 frontal sinusesfrontal sinuses
 sphenoid sinusessphenoid sinuses
 ethmoid sinusesethmoid sinuses
 maxillarymaxillary

73. Paranasal SinusesParanasal Sinuses
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• Hollow portions of bones surrounding
the nasal cavity
Figure 5.10

74. Paranasal SinusesParanasal Sinuses
Slide 5.25bCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Functions of paranasal sinuses
• Lighten the skull
• Give resonance and amplification to voice
Figure 5.10

75. The Fetal SkullThe Fetal Skull
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• The fetal skull is
large compared
to the infants
total body length
Figure 5.13

76. The Fetal SkullThe Fetal Skull
Slide 5.27bCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Fontanelles –
fibrous membranes
connecting the
cranial bones
• Allow the brain
to grow
• Convert to bone
within 24 months
after birth
Figure 5.13

77. The Vertebral ColumnThe Vertebral Column
Slide 5.28Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Vertebrae
separated by
intervertebral
discs
• The spine has
a normal
curvature
• Each vertebrae
is given a name
according to its
location
Figure 5.14

78. • Length of column 71cm (male) and 61cm (female)
• Strong flexible rod that can bend.
• Serve as point of attachment for the ribs
• Intervertebral foramina is the opening between vertebra
• Adult contains 26 vertebra.

79. Characteristics of a typical
vertebrae
• The body- situated anteriorly
• Size change as per the sites
• They are smallest in the cervical region and become larger
towards lumber region.
• Vertebral arch- encloses large vertebral foramen.
• The ring projects 2 pedicle at backward, 2 lamina which
attach to the pedicle.
• Transverse processes project laterally, where two lamina
meets at midline posteriorly.
• They form spinous process.
• Neural arch has four articulating surfaces. Two articulate
with above vertebra, and two blow vertebra.

80. Structure of a Typical VertebraeStructure of a Typical Vertebrae
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Figure 5.16

81. Typical Vertebrae • Body
• weight bearing
• Vertebral arch
• pedicles
• laminae
• Vertebral foramen
• Seven processes
• 2 transverse
• 1 spinous
• 4 articular

82. Cervical vertebra
• Seven- C1 to C7
• Atlas is the first vertebra
• It consist ring bone with two transvers process.
• The axis is the second vertebra, the body is small.

83. Thoracic vertebra
• 12 in number
• Large strong than cervical
• The bodies and transverse processes have facets for
articulation of ribs
Lumber Region
• Five lumber vertebra L1 –L5
• Largest strongest, their projections are short and thick.

84. Sacrum
Figure 7.18a, b

85. Sacrum
• Triangular bone
• Formed by union of five sacral vertebrae.
• Anterior side is concave.
• Lateral portion contains sacral ala(wing)
• The posterior surface is convex.
• Upper side sacral promontory present.
• Sacral tuberosity is a rough surface
• Female sacrum is shorter, wider and more curved
compare to male.

86. Coccyx
• Triangular shaped bone
• Fusion of 4 coccygeal vertebra
• Transverse process are present laterally
Movement of vertebral colums
Flexion - forward
Extension- backward
Lateral flexion- bend on side
Rotation -

87. Functions of vertebral colums
• It supplies blood, nerve, lymph supply on each side of
body.
• Supports skull
• Flexible body movement possible
• Protective cover for spinal cord

88. The Bony ThoraxThe Bony Thorax
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• Forms a cage to protect major organs
• Cone shaped
• Superiorly narrow, inferiorly broad
• Made-up of three parts
• 1 Sternum
• 12 pairs of ribs
• 12 Thoracic vertebrae Figure 5.19a

89. The Bony ThoraxThe Bony Thorax
Slide 5.31bCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 5.19a

90. Sternum
• Flat, narrow,
• Length 15cm
• Three parts
• Manubrium-triangular, superior portion
• Body-the middle largest portion
• Xiphoid process-inferior smallest portion
• Jugular notch/ Suprasternal notch– depression
on superior surface of manubrium.
• Clavicular notch- each side of jugular notch.

91. Sternum
• Formed from three parts :
• Manubrium – superior part
• Articulates with medial end of clavicles
• Body – bulk of sternum
• Sides are articulate for costal cartilage of ribs 2–7
• Xiphoid process – inferior end of sternum
• Ossifies around age 40

92. Ribs
• All ribs attach to vertebral column posteriorly
• True ribs - superior seven pairs of ribs
• Attach to sternum by costal cartilage
• False ribs – inferior five pairs of ribs ,attach indirectly to the
sternum
•floating ribs ribs 11–12 are short and free anteriorly.

93. Ribs
• 12 pairs of ribs
• Articulate posteriorly to thoracic vertebra
• Anteriorly to sternum with costal cartilage
• Last two pairs have no anterior attachment
• First seven –true ribs
• Five pairs – false ribs
• Head of typical rib project posteriorly, wedge shaped.

94. The Appendicular SkeletonThe Appendicular Skeleton
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• Limbs (appendages)
• Pectoral girdle
• Pelvic girdle

95. The Appendicular SkeletonThe Appendicular Skeleton
Slide 5.32bCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 5.6c

96. The Pectoral (Shoulder) GirdleThe Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
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• Composed of two bones
• Clavicle – collarbone
• Scapula – shoulder blade
• These bones allow the upper limb to
have exceptionally free movement

97. Bones of the Shoulder GirdleBones of the Shoulder Girdle
Slide 5.34aCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 5.20a, b

98. The Clavicles
Figure 8–2b, c

99. Clavicle
• Collar bone
• Long slender s- shaped bone
• 2 curve- concave and convex
• It articulates with manubrium of sternum by
sternoclavicular joint
• Also attach with acromion process of scapula and form
acromio-clavicular joint

100. Anatomy of
The
scapula
Figure 8–3a

101. Scapula
• Large triangular flat bone
• Present on posterior part of the thorax between
second and seventh ribs
• Two angle- superior angle, inferior angle
• Three border –superior, medial, lateral
• Two surfaces- anterior and posterior
• Lateral end of spine is flattened, expanded process
called acromion.
• Glenoid cavity-is depression of inferior surface of
acromion. At the lateral end of superior border is a
projection at anterior surface called coracoid
process. Muscles are attached at this part.

102. Bones of the Upper LimbBones of the Upper Limb
Slide 5.35aCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• The arm
is
formed
by a
single
bone
• Humerus
Figure 5.21a, b

103. ANATOMY OF The Humerus
Figure 8–4

104. Humerus
• Largest longest bone
• Articulates proximally with the scapula distally at elbow
with radius and ulna.
• Head articulate with glenoid cavity of scapula.
• Greater and lesser tubercle are rough projection at distal
of head.
• Intertubercular salcus present between two tubercles. It is
deep groove
• At middle portion –shaft, roughened v shaped area called
deltoid tuberosity.
• Medial and lateral epicondyle are rough projection.

105. Bones of the Upper LimbBones of the Upper Limb
Slide 5.35bCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• The
forearm
has two
bones
• Ulna
• Radius
Figure 5.21c

106. The Forearm
Figure 8–5

107. Ulna and radius
• Bones of forearm
• Ulna is longer than radius
• Olecranon process present at proximal end of ulna
• Trochlear notch is a large curve area, present between
olecranon and coronooid process.
• In anatomical position-two bones are parallel.
• Articulate with humerus by elbow joint
• Carpal bone at wrist joint
• Proximal and distal radioulnar joint.

108. Bones of the Upper LimbBones of the Upper Limb
Slide 5.36Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• The hand
• Carpals –
wrist
• Metacarpal
s – palm
• Phalanges
– fingers
Figure 5.22

109. Carpals or wrist bones
• Eight small bones – arranged in two rows of four.
a)Proximal row: scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, pisiform,
attached to wrist joint
b)Distal row:trapezium. Trapezoid, capitate, hamate- joints
with metacarpal bone.

110. Metacarpal bones
• Five bones- form the palm of hand
• Numbered as I to V from thumb side to inward.
• Proximal end articulates with carpal bones
• Distal ends with phalanges.

111. Phalanges or finger bones
• 14 in numbers-
• Referred as thumb, index, middle, ring, little finger.
• Articulate with metacarpals.

112. Bones of the Pelvic GirdleBones of the Pelvic Girdle
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• Hip bones
• Composed of three pair of fused bones
• Ilium
• Ischium
• Pubic bone
• The total weight of the upper body rests on the
pelvis
• Protects several organs
• Reproductive organs
• Urinary bladder
• Part of the large intestine

113. The Pelvic Girdle
Figure 8–7

114. The Pelvis
Figure 8–8

115. Innominate bones/hip bones
• 2 in number, formed by fusion of three bones
• Illium, ischium, pubic
• Ilium- superior border called iliac crest,
• Ends of border called iliac spine- 4 in number
• Anterior superior iliac spine
• Anterior inferior iliac spine
• Posterior superior iliac spine
• Posterior inferior iliac spine
• Greater sciatic notch is present

116. Ischium
• Posterior and inferior part of hip bone
• It consist lesser sciatic notch, ischial spine, ishial
tuberosity

117. Pubis
• Anterior – inferior part of hip bone
• It consist superior and inferior rami
• Body between rami called symphysis pubis
• Anterior border called pubic crest
• On lateral end projection called pubic tubercle

118. The PelvisThe Pelvis
Slide 5.38aCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 5.23a

119. Gender Differences of the PelvisGender Differences of the Pelvis
Slide 5.39Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 5.23c

120. Lower limb
• Composed of 60 bones
• At each side
1 femur
1 tibia
1 fibula
1 patella
7 tarsal bone
5 metatarsal bone
14 phalanges

121. Bones of the Lower LimbsBones of the Lower Limbs
Slide 5.40aCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• The thigh
has one
bone
Femur – thigh
bone
Figure 5.35a, b

122. Femur
• Longest, heaviest, strongest bone
• Proximally articulates with hip bone at
acetabulum cavity.
• Distal articulates tibia and fibula
• Greater and lesser trochanter are the projections.
• Posterior one third triangular flat part called
popliteal surface
• At distal end there are two articulars –medial and
lateral condyle

123. Patella /knee cap
• Small triangular bone
• Located anterior of knee joint
Function: protects knee joint
maintain position of the tendon

124. Bones of the Lower LimbsBones of the Lower Limbs
Slide 5.40bCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• The leg has
two bones
• Tibia
• Fibula
Figure 5.35c

125. Tibia and fibula
• Tibia is longer than fibula.
• There are medial condyle and lateral condyle.
• Lateral condyle extended on fibula.
• At distal part medial malleolus on tibia and lateral
malleolus on fibula
• Tibial tuberosity is point of attachment of muscle and
ligaments

126. The Tibia and Fibula
Figure 8–13

127. Bones of the Lower LimbsBones of the Lower Limbs
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• The foot
• Tarsus – ankle
• Metatarsals –
sole
• Phalanges –
toes
Figure 5.25

128. Tarsals
• Seven in number
• Posterior part of foot
1 talus
1 calcaneus
1 navicular
3 cuneiform
1 cuboid
Talus articulates with tibia and fibula at ankle joint
Calcaneus forms heel of foot

130. The Ankle-Also called the tarsus:
consists of 7 tarsal bones
Figure 8–14a

131. Metatarsal
• Five bones
• Numbered I to V from medial to lateral
• At proximal ends articulates with tarsal bones and
at distal articulates with phalanges
• Phalanges
• 14 in numbers.
• Arranged in same manner like fingers
• Big toe has 2 large, and four toes have three
phalanges

132. Joints
Key words
• Articulation- joint
• Bursa –cushion like sac
• Diathrosis- freely movable joint
• Suture – immovable joints between skull bone
• Symphasis- joint formed by fibrocartilage.

133. JointsJoints
Slide 5.43Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Articulations of bones
• Functions of joints
• Hold bones together
• Allow for mobility
• Ways joints are classified
• Functionally
• Structurally

134. Functional Classification of JointsFunctional Classification of Joints
Slide 5.44Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Synarthroses – immovable joints
• Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable
joints
• Diarthroses – freely moveable joints

135. Types
• Synarthroses
• No movements
• Primarily axial
skeleton
• Bones connected
with fibrous tissue
ligament
• Examples: Skull
sutures and distal
Tibia/Fibula

136. Types
• Amphiarthroses
• Slightly movable
• Axial skeleton
• Connected by
cartilage
• Intervertebral
joints, pubic
symphysis

137. Types
• Diarthroses – freely movable
• Also called synovial (fluid filled joint cavity)
• Primarily found in the limbs
• Plane of movement depends on the joint

138. Structural Classification of JointsStructural Classification of Joints
Slide 5.45Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Fibrous joints
• Generally immovable
• Cartilaginous joints
• Immovable or slightly moveable
• Synovial joints
• Freely moveable

139. Fibrous JointsFibrous Joints
Slide 5.46Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Bones united by fibrous tissue –
synarthrosis or largely immovable.
Figure 5.27d, e

140. Cartilaginous Joints – mostlyCartilaginous Joints – mostly
amphiarthrosisamphiarthrosis
Slide 5.47Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Bones connected by cartilage
• Examples
• Pubic
symphysis
• Intervertebral
joints
Figure 5.27b, c

141. Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
Slide 5.48Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Articulating
bones are
separated by a
joint cavity
• Synovial fluid
is found in the
joint cavity
Figure 5.27f–h

142. The Synovial JointThe Synovial Joint
Slide 5.51Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 5.28

143. Synovial Joints - Structure
1. Articular cartilage: hyaline
2. Joint Cavity: space filled with lubricating fluid
3. Fibrous Capsule: fibrous CT lined with a smooth
synovial membrane
4. Reinforcing Ligament: can be inside or outside
the joint capsule
5. Synovial Fluid: viscous and lubricating
6. Tendons sheath an elongated bursa that rapes
around a tendon subjected to friction.
7. Menisci: cartilaginous discs

144. Synovial Joint

145. Shoulder joint
• Ball and socket joint, multiaxial synovial joint
• Humerus fit into glenoid cavity of scapula
• Greater rate of movement
• Articulating capsule is more loose, completely envelops
the articulation
• Strength and stability is depend on four muscle: supra
spinatus, infra spinatus, tarrous, rotator
• Three ligament: Cora cohumeral ligament, Glenohumeral
ligament, Transverse humeral ligament

146. Muscles in shoulder joint
• Coracobrachialis muscle – upper arm, at coracoid
process to mid arm
• Deltoid muscle- clevicle, acromion process and spine of
scapula to deltoid tuberosity
• Pectoralis muscle – at anterior thoracic wall, clevicle and
humerus
• Latissimus dorsi – iliac crest, spinous process of lumber
and thoracic vertebra to upward at bicipital groove of
humerus

147. Movements
• Flexion
• Extension
• Hyper extension
• Abduction
• Adduction
• Circumduction
• Rotation – longitudinal axis
• Inversion –inward
• Eversion –outward
• Dorsiflexion-bending foot, upper surface
• Planter flexion-bending foot in direction of sole

148. • Protraction- mandible and shoulder girdle forward
• Retraction –mandible and shoulder girdle backward
• Elevation –body upward
• Depression –body down ward
• Opposition – angular of thumb to finger
• Reposition –thumb to anatomical position

149. Elbow joint
• Hinge joint – between humerus and radius
• Extracapsular stuctures- anterior, posterior, medial ,
lateral strengthening ligaments
• Muscles-brachialis and triceps

150. Hip joint
• Ball and socket joint, multi axial joint
• Head of femur articulates with acetabulum cavity of hip
joint
• Deepened by acetabulo labrum- hold the socket secure
by synovial membrane
• Three ligaments:
• Iliofemoral
• Pubofemoral
• ischiofemora

151. Muscles and movement
• Muscles:
• Psoas muscle
• Iliacus muscle
• Quadriceps femoris
• Gluteal muscles
• Sartorius muscle

152. Movements:
• Flexion
• Extension
• Adduction
• Abduction
• Medial rotation
• Lateral rotation

153. Knee joint
• Called tibio-femoral joint
• Largest most complex joint
• Synovial with modified hinge joint
• Small degree of rotation movement
• Synovial membrane covers ligaments and pads of fat
• Bursae- cushion the knee joint
• Supra patellar- above patella
• Prepatellar- between skin and patella
• Infra patellar- between skin and tubular tuberosity

154. Muscles and movement
• Flexion
• extension
• slight degree of rotation- laterally medially
• Muscles :
• Hamstring muscles
• Gastrocnemius muscle