The document summarizes a lecture on research methodology. It discusses: 1. The key elements of a research design process including defining the research problem, objectives, hypotheses, variables, unit of analysis, and coverage. 2. The basic assumptions of science and the scientific approach. 3. The role of methodology in providing rules for communication, reasoning, and establishing objectivity. 4. The limitations of applying science in social science research due to human behavior being complex and unpredictable.

1. LECTURE TWO
Michael Poku-Boansi, Ph.D.
August/September, 2012
PL 253 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2. TODAY
2
The Role of Science – The Scientific Approach
 What is Science? – Meaning and Role of Science
 Research must satisfy the basic requirement of Science
INTRODUCTION

3. TODAY
3
1. Science is variously explained in different contexts.
- Prestigious undertaking; understanding nature
- Body of true knowledge
- Objective investigation of empirical phenomena.
INTRODUCTION

4. TODAY
4
→ Scientific Approach – Claim of superiorly of Knowledge
- Derived from the Latin word “Scire” – “to know” and
“Scientia” – knowledge
INTRODUCTION

5. TODAY
5
 All Scientists explore the working of the world
Some search for clues to the to the origin of the universe
Some examine the structure of molecules in cells of living plants
and animals
INTRODUCTION

6. TODAY
6
 Others study why we act the way we do
 Some try to solve mathematical problems
INTRODUCTION

7. TODAY
7
2. There are other ways of knowing – historically
a. Authoritarian Mode
- Referring to individuals who are socially and politically
qualified as producers of knowledge;
- Oracles in tribal societies, archbishops in theocracy, kings
in
monarchical societies, scientists in technocratic societies
etc.
INTRODUCTION

8. TODAY
8
b. Mystical Mode
- Knowledge is obtained from authorities on the supernatural
– prophets, diviners, mediums, etc;
- Very close to Authoritarian Mode but differs in terms of its
dependencies on manifestations of supernatural events and
the psychological state of mind of the consumer of
knowledge – very ritualistic
INTRODUCTION

9. TODAY
9
c. Rationalistic Mode – “Rationalism” - Philosophy
- Totality of Knowledge can be obtained by strict adherence to
the forms and rules of logic’
- That is, all that is valid must be explained by logical
construction of facts?
INTRODUCTION

10. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE
10
Science is rooted in a body of assumptions that are unproven
and unprovable.
“ Epistemology” – Study of the foundations of knowledge” –
examines the nature of these premises and how they work.
The study of these assumptions helps us to understand the
“Scientific Approach” and its claim of superiority over other
forms of knowledge.

11. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE
11
The Key Assumptions:
1. Nature is orderly
- Recognizable regularity and order in the natural world – no
reference to the existence of an omnipotent or supernatural
force.

12. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE
12
2. We can know nature:
- The human being is part of nature and the human being is
capable of knowing nature as well as itself.

13. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE
13
3. All natural phenomena have natural causes:
- Does not accept any causal forces except natural ones
- Rejects and opposes fundamental religion, spiritual, miracle,
magic and supernatural explanations to events.

14. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE
14
4. Nothing is self-evident
- Scientific knowledge is not self-evident – therefore all claims
of knowledge must be subjected to objective demonstration –
i.e. proof.

15. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE
15
5. Knowledge is derived from the acquisition of experience.
- If science is to help us understand the world, then it must be
“empirical”
- That is, it must rely on perceptions, experience and
observations

16. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE
16
6. Knowledge is superior to Ignorance
- Knowledge to be pursed for its own sake and also to improve
ourselves.
- We cannot know everything – Knowledge is tentative and
changing – openness to on-going evolution of knowledge. E.g.
Urbanization, shape of the world.

17. THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
17
People confuse the content of science with its methodology
1.The role of Science in Social Science and Planning research is
becoming more and more prominent – it is being driven by a quest
to be more and more scientific with efforts towards quantification.
- Social Science research is being stretched to a level of
systematicness and empirical verification characterising
research in the physical sciences.

18. THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
18
2. ‘Science has no subject-matter of its own and not every study
of phenomenon can be regarded as science e.g. Astronomy.’
- ‘Science then does not refer to body of “general or
particular
knowledge” but to a distinct methodology’ (process of
ordered assemblying of knowledge)

19. THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
19
3. Science is an accumulation of systematic knowledge – i.e.;
knowledge collected by means of (Scientific) methodology
(ordered process).
- A method or approach to the empirical world
- A mode of analysis which permits scientist to state
proposition in the form of “if” and “then”
- Scientific knowledge is a body of reliable knowledge that
can be logically and rationally explained (Aristotle)

20. 20
The body of knowledge as accumulated in the social sciences is
to enable us to: - explain why and how things happen the way
they do. Predict – “if” and “then”. E.g. Understand –why the
poor stay empirical phenomenon, how access to social facilities
can be enhanced
THE AIM OF (SOCIAL) SCIENCES

21. THE ROLES OF METHODOLOGY
21
 As indicated earlier, what is critical in Science is the
‘methodology or approach’. It is united not by subject-matter
but by their methodology.
- What makes the scientific approach unique from other
modes of acquiring knowledge is its assumptions and
methodology.

22. THE ROLES OF METHODOLOGY
22
- A Scientific methodology is a system of explicit rules and
procedures upon which research is based and against which
claims for knowledge are evaluated or verified.
→ Methodology of the social sciences has evolved gradually over
the years through continuous interchange of ideas,
information, criticisms etc.
→ The system of rules and procedures is the normative
component of the scientific methodology.

23. THE ROLES OF METHODOLOGY
23
Methodology Provides Three (3) Things/Rules
a)Provides rules for Communication:
- To facilitate communication between researchers who have
or
want to have shared experience.
- Framework for replication , constructive and criticism :
Safeguard against international error or deception.

24. THE ROLES OF METHODOLOGY
24
b) Provides rules for Reasoning:
- System of logical reasoning → the system of valid reasoning
that
permits drawing reliable inferences from factual
observations
- Logical procedures take the form of closely interdependent
series of propositions that support each other.

25. THE ROLES OF METHODOLOGY
25
c) Provides rules for inter subjectivity:
- The process of establishing objectivity through validation.
One scientist replicating the procedure of research in order to
validate empirical facts and conclusion of another scientist.

26. THE LIMITS OF SCIENCE IN SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH
26
1. Human behaviour changes too frequently to allow real
scientific predictions with precision;
2. Human behaviour is too elusive, subtle and complex to yield
to the rigid categorization and artificial instruments of
science;
3. Studies of human behaviour by other human beings whose
observations and judgments are coloured by their own values,
perceptions and biases; and

27. THE LIMITS OF SCIENCE IN SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH
27
4. Human beings who are subjects of such predictions have the
ability to obstruct the prediction.
→ Scientific tools in the physical sciences cannot therefore be
transferred or applied fully in social science research.
(Difficult to conduct controlled experiments)
→ The core issue is the Human being at the centre of
development research.

28. ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN PROCESS
28
Definition
 The logical sequence that links the empirical data to the
research problems and ultimately to its conclusions.
- The logical framework or process for realizing the research
objectives. (e.g. a road map)
- Why? To avoid a situation where the evidence gathered does
not address the research problem or question.

29. ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN PROCESS
29
- Some authors differentiate between design process and a
work plan
- Research design – deals with the logical problem and the
step – by- step approach for realising the research objectives;
while
- Work plan – deals with logistical problem or needs and a road
map.

30. KEY ELEMENTS
30
Research Problem
- Question
- Objectives
- Hypothesis

31. KEY ELEMENTS
31
- Choice or emphasis depends on the background of the
researcher
- Planners use “Problem definition”
- Research problem “is an intellectual stimulus calling for a
response in the form of scientific enquiry”

32. KEY ELEMENTS
32
- E.g. Why widespread use of fertilizers and agrochemicals has
been impaired?
- why to the poor stay poor?
- How can poverty be reduced?

33. KEY ELEMENTS
33
- Why do people migrate and how? → Research question
- Caution - Not all intellectual stimuli can be studied
empirically, and not all behaviour is guided by specific
knowledge. Problems that cannot be empirically grounded or
(that are) concerned with subjective preferences, beliefs,
values or tastes are not amenable to empirical enquiry.

34. KEY ELEMENTS
34
- Differences between a problem statement and research
question.
- Problem - An expression of a need to be addressed
- Question - Not necessarily a need but a subject of interest
E.g. Why do people migrate?
What are changing trends of migration?

35. KEY ELEMENTS
35
- Content → Need to develop the logical evolution of the
problem, what questions/issues are being addressed, why is it a
problem, the type of results expected, effects?
- Objective – The researcher’s response to the problem defined.
Defines what the study seeks to achieve.

36. KEY ELEMENTS
36
- Very important because all other issues must relate to this.
- Regarded as the HANDLE Focus or reference point of the
research.

37. APPLICATION OF OBJECTIVES
37
- Sub-division and amplification of the research objectives or
questions
- In planning research – Goals and Objectives or General and
Operational objectives are used.
- Objectives give a clearer sense of focus and ensures that the
research stays within feasible limits and achieves its purpose.

38. HYPOTHESIS
38
- A tentative answer to a research problem, expressed in the
form of a clearly stated relation between the independent and
dependent variables. – Theory.
Ho : X > 50 years
H1 : X < 50 years
- They are tentative answers because they can be
continued/verified only after they have been tested
empirically.
̭
̭

39. HYPOTHESIS
39
- Proposed explanation for a phenomenon but should be
testable.
- A hypothesis is constructed and subjected to test, if rejected,
another one can be put forward; then depending on its
outcome, it is incorporated into a body of scientific
knowledge.

40. HYPOTHESIS
40
Examples.
- Poor people stay close to their place of work
- Excessive occupancy rates and high densities adversely
affect housing maintenance.

41. HYPOTHESIS
41
- Access to markets affect proportion of produce sold at home
- Average rental value of properties decreases with distance
from the town centre.

42. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
42
A hypothesis states what we are looking for - a formulation of a
deduction if verified, becomes part of a future theoretical
construction.
- A hypothesis looks forward - a proposition which can be tested
to establish its validity

43. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
43
- May prove to be correct or incorrect
- In accordance with, or contrary to, common sense.

44. LINKAGE BETWEEN THEORY AND HYPOTHESIS
44
→ Forward and backwards: Inductive and Deductive
a) Theories suggest hypothesis which can be tested by specific
research projects:
- Hypothesis is the necessary link between theory and the
investigation which leads to the discovery of addition to
knowledge.

45. LINKAGE BETWEEN THEORY AND HYPOTHESIS
45
b)Hypothesis could lead to the formulation of theory e.g.
Accessibility to a settlement positively affects the proportion of
produce sold in the local market.
c)A trial solution to a problem may be referred to as a hypothesis,
often called an “educated guess”

46. 46
1.The absence of a clear theoretical framework
2.Lack of ability to utilize that theoretical framework logically.
3. Failure to be acquainted with available research techniques so
as to be able to state the hypothesis clearly.
DIFFICULTIES IN THE FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

47. 47
1. Must be conceptually clear -operationally defined.
2. Should be devoid of value judgements
3. Should be simple and the postulation of excessive numbers of
entities should be discouraged (simplicity)
4. Must be specific - operations and predictions indicated should
be spelled out.
5. Should be related to available techniques
CHARACTERISTICS OF USABLE HYPOTHESIS

48. 48
6. Should be related to a body of theory
7. Conservatism – the degree of “fit” with existing recognised
knowledge systems
8. Fruitfulness – the prospect that a hypothesis may explain
further phenomena in the future.
CHARACTERISTICS OF USABLE HYPOTHESIS

49. 49
a) Must be clear - define variables
b) Must be specific - specify conditions and direction (negative
or positive.)
c) Must be testable within available methods
d) Must be value -free- researcher must be aware of personal
biases and avoid them as much as possible
e) Relate to a body of theory
CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

50. 50
 When a set of hypotheses are grouped together they become
a type of conceptual framework.
 When a conceptual framework is complex and incorporates
causality or explanation it is generally referred to as a theory.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

51. VARIABLES
51
In order to move form conceptual to empirical level, concepts are converted
into variables.
It examines key elements of the research problem and objectives and
propositions
- Definition: An empirical property that can take on two or more values.
That is, if a property can change, either in quantity or quality it can be
regarded as a variable.
- E.g. A social class - 3 main groups; Expectation - 2 - high or
low - 2 Values - dichotomous variable - Housing conditions –
poor, fair, good

52. VARIABLES
52
- Practical Level – Urban spilt Economy Occupation/→
employment, Economic activities etc.
- Transport: Modal split, pedestrian characteristics traffic
volume, travel time or speed.
- Dependent and Independent Variables
- Dependent - variable the researcher wants to explain.
- Criterion variable

53. VARIABLES
53
- Independent - that which is expected to explain the change
in
the dependent variable
- Also called explanatory or predictor variable.
- Y = (x) - changes in the values of x are associated with
changes in the values of Y.
- Control variable - for explanatory studies.

54. UNIT OF ENQUIRY/ANALYSIS
54
- The most elementary part of the phenomenon to be studied.
- The case or the basic unit of investigation
- The unit about which information is required.

55. UNIT OF ENQUIRY/ANALYSIS
55
- The unit of Analysis affects research design, data collection
and analysis.
- E.g. individuals, household, houses, towns, social groups,
organisation etc.
- In principle, there is no limit to the selection of U of A, but
must relate to research procedures, scope and generalisation.

56. COVERAGE
56
- Scope or scale of the research; involves setting or defining the
boundaries of the research.
(i.e., geographical, demographic, time, gender, issues or
content as well as the variables of interest.)
- Within the boundaries, it deals more with determination of
appropriate data requirements that will ensure accuracy, and
reliability of results,

57. COVERAGE
57
- Deals further with sample size, type of sample, sample frame
etc
- Also influenced by availability of funds and level of accuracy
desired.

58. ANALYSIS
58
a) - Linking data to propositions
- Relating pieces or categories of data to propositions,
problems hypothesis etc.
- E.g. matching income with location of residence,
household size. etc

59. ANALYSIS
59
b) Criteria for interpreting data and results
- Defining guidelines for interpretation
- E.g. threshold for significant results that constitutes finding

60. ANALYSIS
60
→ Impact Studies
40% - Low
40% - 59
60+
c) Analytical methods or modes
-
-
Moderate
High-

61. WORK PLAN
61
Includes the following:
1.Literature Review;
2.Data collection;
3.Questionnaire design and production;
4.Errors minimisation;

62. WORK PLAN
62
5. Field Work;
6. Processing and Analysis of data;
7. Timing, Cost and Staff Recruitments; and
8. Documents and Documentation.

63. THE RESEARCH PROCESS
63
The key elements of the process:
a)Linear Approach with feedback system
a)Cyclical Approach
- Problem Definition Objectives
- Objectives
- Scope and Justification

64. THE RESEARCH PROCESS
64
- Methodology
- Data Collection
- Processing And Analysis
- Report Presentation