Research Methods

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Research Methods in
English Language Teaching

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Brainstorming Activity
 How do you define research?
 Why do people do research?
 List different types of research.
 Can you categorize these types in any way?
 Why do researchers claim that their work is
scientific?
 What are the characteristics of scientific research?

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What is Research?
 Research is a process of systematic inquiry that is
designed to collect, analyze, interpret and use data to
understand, describe, predict, or control a social,
educational and psychological phenomenon to empower
individuals in such contexts.
 Research is simply the process of finding solutions to a
problem after thorough study and analysis of the situational
factors. It is gathering information needed to answer a
question, and thereby help in solving a problem.
 Research is a process by which one acquires dependable
and useful information about a phenomenon or a process.

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What is Research?
 Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed/assumed relations among natural phenomena.
 Research is an organized, systematic, data based, critical,
objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific
problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or
solutions to it.
 Research is a disciplined inquiry which requires us to be
systematic so that by the end we can stand by our results
with confidence.

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Motivation for doing research?
1. One major way of knowing
It is one of many ways of knowing or understanding.
Scientific Procedure ( systematic, data-based)
2. For its ultimate goals
Basic Research
For generating theories and models that could be used for
understanding human behavior and the functioning of different
structures
For developing methodologies
For proving or disproving whether what has been done/studied
works in our context

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Motivation for doing research?
Applied Research
For offering the opportunity of solving a problem
For reducing uncertainty by providing information that improves the
decision-making process.
3. For its immediate purposes
It attempts to explore new things
It presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social
setting, or relationship. It seeks to determine the answers to who,
what, when, where, and how questions.
It builds on exploratory and descriptive research and goes on to
identify the reasons for something that occurs. Explanatory
research looks for causes and reasons.

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Ways of Knowing
 Five ways we can know something
 Personal experience
 Tradition
 Experts and authorities
 Logic
 Inductive
 Deductive
 The scientific method
Obj. 1.2

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Ways of Knowing
 1. Personal experience
 Relying on one’s knowledge of prior experiences
 Limitations
 How one is affected by an event depends on who one is
 One frequently needs to know something that cannot be learned
through experience
 2. Tradition
 Doing things as they have always been done
 Limitations
 Traditions are often based on an idealized past
 Traditions can be distant from current realities and the complexities
associated with them
 3. Experts or authorities
 Relying on the expertise or authority of others
 Limitations
 Experts can be wrong
 Experts can disagree among themselves, as in a “second opinion”
Obj. 1.2

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Ways of Knowing
 4. Logical Reasoning
 A. Inductive reasoning
 Reasoning from the specific to the general
 Limitations
 In order to be certain of a conclusion one must observe all
examples
 All examples can be observed only in very limited situations
where there are few members of the group
 B. Deductive reasoning
 Reasoning from the general to the specific
 Limitations
 You must begin with true premises in order to arrive at true
conclusions
 Deductive reasoning only organizes what is already known
Obj. 1.2

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Ways of Knowing
 5. The Scientific Method
 The goal of the scientific method is to explain, predict,
and/or control phenomena
 This involves the acquisition of knowledge and the
development and testing of theory
 The use of the scientific method is more efficient and
reliable than any other source of knowledge
 Five steps in the scientific method
 Recognition and definition of the problem
 Formulation of questions or hypotheses
 Collection of data
 Analysis of data
 Stating conclusions
Obj. 1.1 & 1.4

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How do Science & Research relate?
Goals of Science
1. Description
2. Understanding
3. Prediction
4. Control over phenomena
To achieve these goals, science has to conduct research in its
various fields.
Key values of Science
1. Empiricism
2. Skepticism
3. Tentativeness
4. Publicity
Studies in different fields, be it in natural or social science, have
to share these values.

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Science & Research
Important Characteristics of Scientific Method
 1. Empirical
 2. Verifiable
 3. Cumulative
 4. Deterministic
 5. Ethical and Ideological Neutrality
 6. Statistical Generalization
 7. Rationalism

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CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
 Five Dimensions for classification :
 1. The ultimate goals of research
 2. The immediate purpose of doing research
 3. How it treats time i.e. the time dimension
in research and
 4. Design of the research
 5. The data collection techniques used in it

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Dimension 1: Ultimate goals of Research
 A. Basic Research
 Basic research advances fundamental knowledge
about the human world.
 It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that
explain how this world operates, what makes things
happen, why social relations are a certain way, and
why society changes.
 Basic research is the source of most new scientific
ideas and ways of thinking about the world. It can
be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; however,
explanatory research is the most common.

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B. Applied Research
 Applied researchers try to solve specific policy problems or
help practitioners accomplish tasks.
 Theory is less central to them than seeking a solution on a
specific problem for a limited setting.
 Applied research is frequently a descriptive research, and
its main strength is its immediate practical use.
 Applied research is conducted when decision must be
made about a specific real-life problem.
 Applied research encompasses those studies undertaken
to answer questions about specific problems or to make
decisions about a particular course of action or policy.

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Types of Applied Research
 i) Action research: The applied research that treats
knowledge as a form of power and abolishes the line
between research and action.
 ii) Impact Assessment Research: Its purpose is to estimate
the likely consequences of a planned change.
 iii) Evaluation Research: The process of establishing value
judgment based on evidence about the achievement of
the goals of a program.
 Formative evaluation is built-in monitoring or continuous
feedback on a program used for program
management.
 Summative evaluation looks at final program outcomes.

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Dimension 2: Immediate Purposes of Research
 A. Exploratory/Formulative Research
 It attempts to explore new things
 B. Descriptive Research
 It presents a picture of the specific details of a situation,
social setting, or relationship.
 It seeks to determine the answers to who, what, when,
where, and how questions.
 C. Explanatory Research
 It builds on exploratory and descriptive research and goes
on to identify the reasons for something that occurs.
Explanatory research looks for causes and reasons.

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A. Exploratory Research
 Goals :
 1. Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and
concerns;
 2. Develop well grounded picture of the situation;
 3. Develop tentative theories, generate new ideas,
conjectures, or hypotheses;
 4. Determine the feasibility of conducting the study;
 5. Formulate questions and refine issues for more
systematic inquiry; and
 6. Develop techniques and a sense of direction for future
research.

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B. Descriptive Research
 Goals of Descriptive Research
 1. Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics i.e.
provide an accurate profile of a group;
 2. Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of the situation;
 3. Present background information;
 4. Create a set of categories or classify the information;
 5. Clarify sequence, set of stages; and
 6. Focus on ‘who,’ ‘what,’ ‘when,’ ‘where,’ and ‘how’ but not
‘why’?

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C. Explanatory Research
 Goals
 1. Explain things not just reporting. Why? Elaborate and
enrich a theory’s explanation.
 2. Determine which of several explanations is best.
 3. Determine the accuracy of the theory; test a theory’s
predictions or principle.
 4. Advance knowledge about underlying process.
 5. Build and elaborate a theory; elaborate and enrich a
theory’s predictions or principle.
 6. Extend a theory or principle to new areas, new issues,
new topics:
 7. Provide evidence to support or refute an explanation
or prediction.

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Dimension 3: Time Required in Research
 A. Cross-Sectional Research
 Observation is conducted at one point in time.
 Adv. Usually the simplest and least costly alternative.
 Dis. Cannot capture the change processes.
 Cross-sectional research can be exploratory,
descriptive, or explanatory,
 But it is most consistent with a descriptive approach to
research.

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B. Longitudinal Research
 Examining features of people or other units at
more than one time.
 ADV. More powerful, especially when
researchers seek answers to questions about
change.
 Disadv. Usually more complex and costly than
cross-sectional research
 There are three types of longitudinal research:
time series, panel, and cohort.

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Dimension 4: Research Design
 A. Experimental / Quasi-experimental
 B. Causal - Comparative
 C. Survey
 D. Correlational
 E. Case Study
 F. Ethnographic
 G. Phenomenological
 H. Historical/Narrative
 I. Action Research

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Dimension 5: Research Techniques Used
 1. Quantitative Research
 A. Experimental Quantitative Studies
 Experimental
 Quasi-experimental
 B. Non-experimental Quantitative Studies
 Causal-comparative
 Correlational
 Survey
 Evaluation research
 2. Qualitative Research
 Case study
 Narrative
 Ethnography
 Phenomenological
 Action Research
 3. Mixed Method
 Quantitative supplementing Qualitative
 Qualitative supplementing Quantitative
 e.g. Action Research, Evaluation Research

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Quantitative: experimental
 Definition: rigorous and controlled search for
cause and effect.
 Independent variable is varied to measure
impact on the dependent variable;
 Often involves pre- and post-testing;
 Use of experimental and control group usual;

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Example: pre- and post-test
random group design
Post-test

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Non-experimental Quantitative: Surveys
 Purpose – to describe the current status of a variable of
interest to the researcher
 Build understanding of population’s knowledge, attitudes,
practices;
 Sampling strategy aims at representativeness and
generalisability;
 Use of an existing, adapted or generated instrument;
 How many students drop out of school in Amhara Region?
 What are the attitudes of parents, students, and teachers
concerning an extended school year?
 What kinds of activities typically occur in ninth-grade reading
classes, and how frequently does each occur?
 To what extent are high school teachers using CLT
methodology?

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Non-experimental Quantitative: Causal-
Comparative Research
 Attempts to determine the cause for preexisting differences
in groups of individuals
 Groups already differ on some variable and the researcher
attempts to identify a major factor that led to these
differences
 e.g.
 Students participating in extracurricular activities have
higher grade point averages than students who do not
participate
 Children who attend preschool are more adjusted
socially in the first grade than those children who do not
attend preschool

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Non-experimental Quantitative: Causal-
Comparative Research
 The alleged cause and effect have already occurred
 Orientations
 Retrospective - starts with an effect and seeks possible
causes
 Prospective - starts with a cause and investigates its effect on
some variable
 Non-Manipulated Variables
 Age Sex
 Ethnicity Learning style
 Socioeconomic status Family environment
 Type of school Preschool attendance
 Parental educational level

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Non-experimental Quantitative:
Correlational research
 Investigates the possibility of relationship between or
among variables.
 Particularly useful in tackling problems in education and
the social science because it allows for the measurement
of a number of variables and their relationships
 Carried out for one of two basic purposes
 to help explain important human behaviors by exploring the
relationships between measures of different variables to
understand factors that contribute to a more complex
characteristic or
 to predict likely outcomes

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Quantitative: measures of rigour
 Is there good conceptualisation of key terms
(careful definition of key constructs)?
 Is there good operationalisation of these
concepts (translating the linguistic meaning of
the construct into an indicator that can be
measured)?
 Can the research be replicated?

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Quantitative: measure of rigour
 Measurement validity: the degree to which a
measure does what it is intended to do
(criterion-related – predictive or concurrent;
content; construct)
 Reliability: the dependability of a measure;
does it yield the same results in repeated use
(test-retest; parallel; split half)

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Qualitative: ethnography
 Exploring a way of life from the point of view of its
participants;
 Immersion in the context to gain rich
understanding;
 Explore how cultural understandings are shaped
and how group members make sense of
experiences;
 Range of data collection techniques (interviews,
focus group discussions, observation, document
analysis, surveys)

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Qualitative: Case study
 Intensive investigations of particular individuals,
families, units (e.g. classroom, school, hospital),
or policy;
 Ideographic (study individual as individual not as
member of a population);
 Rich information about case, allowing for new
ideas to emerge and critical reflection on existing
theories

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Qualitative: Narrative
 Purpose – focus on studying a single person and
gathering data through the collection of stories that
are used to construct a narrative about the
individual’s experience and the meanings he/she
attributes to them
 Examples
 What are the experiences of a veteran teacher who
has been moved into an administrative position in
her school?
 What does “inclusion” mean to a special needs child
who is placed in a regular education classroom?

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Qualitative: Phenomenological research
 Phenomenology is a qualitative research that tries to
discover the meaning, perception, perspectives,
understandings and feeling of an individual or group of
a particular event or experience
 A careful description of phenomena from the
perspectives of those who have experienced the
phenomena (Wiersma, 2000)
 An emphasis is to understand the experience or
phenomenon from the participants’ points of view or
perception and meaning (Mertens, 2005)
 An attempt to answer the question “What is it like to
experience such –and- such?” (Leedy & Ormnod, 2005)

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Action research
 Research on the conditions and effects of
various forms of social action and research
leading to social action;
 Uses a spiral of steps, each of which is
composed of a circle of planning, action, and
fact-finding about the result of the action

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Qualitative data collection techniques
 Interviews
 Focus Group Discussions
 Journals/diaries
 Observation
 Document Analysis

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Qualitative: rigour
 Weaves together parts and whole
 Ecological validity/Credibility: the results of qualitative
research are credible or believable from the
perspective of the participant in the research.
 Transferability: the degree to which the results of
qualitative research can be generalized or transferred
to other contexts or settings.
 Dependability: the need for the researcher to account
for the ever-changing context within which research
occurs.

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Qualitative: rigour
 Confirmability: the degree to which the results
could be confirmed or corroborated by others
 (document the procedures for checking and
rechecking the data throughout the study;
 member checking;
 data audit that examines the data collection
and analysis procedures and makes judgments
about the potential for bias or distortion).

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C. Mixed methods
 Advantages: capitalize on best of both
traditions, overcome shortcomings of each,
build broader picture;
 Disadvantages: Assumptions underlying each
approach may not be compatible; researcher
has to develop skills in different research
traditions; time factor

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i) Mixed method: qualitative
supplementing quantitative
 Surveys that use open-ended and close-ended
questions;
 Gathering qualitative data (interviews, focus
group discussions) to inform the design of a
survey instrument;
 Gathering qualitative data after a survey to add
depth to the findings

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ii) Mixed method:
quantitative supplementing qualitative
 Ethnographic study with small community survey;
 Some in-depth interview data coded for tallying or
statistical analysis;
 Complementing case study with existing
statistical data.