Introduction In life, there are universal laws that govern everything we do. These laws are so perfect that if you were to align yourself with them, you could have so much prosperity that it would be coming out of your ears. This is because God created the universe in the image and likeness of him. It is failure to follow the universal laws that causes one to fail. The laws that were created consisted of the following: · Law of Gratitude: The Law of Gratitude states that you must show gratitude for what you have. By having gratitude, you speed your growth and success faster than you normally would. This is because if you appreciate the things you have, even if they are small things, you are open to receiving more. Law of Attraction: The Law of Attraction states that if you focus your attention on something long enough you will get it. It all starts in the mind. You think of something and when you think of it, you manifest that in your life. This could be a mental picture of a check or actual cash, but you think about it with an image. Law of Karma: the Law of Karma states that if you go out and do something bad, it will come back to you with something bad. If you do well for others, good things happen to you. The principle here is to know you can create good or bad through your actions. There will always be an effect no matter what. Law of Love: the Law of Love states that love is more than emotion or feeling; it is energy. It has substance and can be felt. Love is also considered acceptance of oneself or others. This means that no matter what you do in life if you do not approach or leave the situation out of love, it won't work. Law of Allowing: The Law of Allowing states that for us to get what we want, we must be receptive to it. We can't merely say to the Universe that we want something if we don't allow ourselves to receive it. This will defeat our purpose for wanting it in the first place. Law of Vibration: the Law of Vibration states that if you wish on something and use your thoughts to visualize it, you are halfway there to get it. To complete the cycle you must use the Law of Vibration to feel part of what you want. Do this and you'll have anything you want in life. For everything to function properly there has to be structure. Without structure, our world, or universe, would be in utter chaos. Successful people understand universal laws and apply them daily. They may not acknowledge that to you, but they do follow the laws. There is a higher power and this higher power controls the universe and what we get out of it. People who know this, but wish to direct their own lives, follow the reasons. Successful people don't sit around and say "I'll try," they say yes and act on it. Chapter - 1 The Law of Attraction The law of attraction is the most powerful force in the universe. If you work against it, it can only bring you pain and misery. Successful people know this but have kept it hidden from the lower class for centuries because th

1. Advanced Research Methods- Quantitative
and qualitative (DVMT 523)
8/12/2023
1
SGDS

2. SCHOOL OF GOVERNANCE AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
MA IN DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT
Advanced Research Methods- Quantitative
and qualitative (DVMT 523)
8/12/2023
2
Chapter I: Introduction to Social Science
Research
Best J.W., and Kahn, J.V. (1993) Research in Education, 7th ed. Allyn & Bacon
Rolfe, G. (nd). Philosophical basis for research.

3. INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH
 What is research? Meaning and definition
 The philosophical basis of empirical research
 The Scientific Method
 Types and Nature of Research
 Research designs
8/12/2023
3

4. WHAT IS RESEARCH?
8/12/2023
4
 A growing tendency to see a research as a procedure/process
for which people can be trained with rules and guidelines
governing aspects, from submitting research proposal to
writing final report (Rolfe, nd.).
 a practice in which every new situation throws up fresh
challenges and where the standard procedures often need to
be modified and improvised in order to take account of
unexpected developments (Rolfe, nd.).
 “…the systematic and objective analysis and recording of
controlled observations that may lead to the development of
generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction
and possibly ultimate control of events (Best and Khan
,1995:p20).

5. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
 Research is directed towards the solution of a problem:- discover
cause-effect relation between variables.
 Research emphasizes on the development of generalization,
principles, or theories that will be helpful in predicting future
occurrences.
 Research is based upon observable experience or empirical
evidence.
 Research demands accurate observation and description- using
quantitative or qualitative measuring devices. Involving valid and
reliable data gathering procedures.
 Research involves gathering new data from primary or first hand
sources or using existing data for a new purposes.
 Involves carefully defined procedures that apply rigorous/exact
analysis
8/12/2023
5

6. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
 Research requires expertise/ skill, k/ge.
 Research strives to be objective and logical, applying
every possible test to validate the procedure employed,
the data collected, and the conclusions reached.
 Research involves the quest/search for answers to unsolved
problems/originality/novelty.
 Research is characterized by patient and unhurried
activity – rarely spectacular, expect disappointment,
discouragement
 Research should be carefully recorded and reported.
 Research sometimes requires courage.
8/12/2023
6

7. PHILOSOPHICAL BASES
 Philosophical worldviews or ideas often influence approaches to
research.
 Worldview may refer to “a basic set of belief that guide action” (Guba,
1990).
 It is the philosophy of life or conception of the world.
 Ontology– philosophy of existence of reality /what things are
 A system of belief that reflects an interpretation of an individual about
what constitutes a fact.
 Epistemology–the study of how we know things or the method of
knowing existence or reality.
8/12/2023
7

8. PHILOSOPHIES OF SCIENCE
Philosophical approaches to scientific method:
 (Post)positivism /objectivism/ –there is single, universal reality (objective
truth).
 the role of science is to discover this reality-scientific method, doing science
research, empirical research
 social entities exist in reality external to social actors concerned with their
existence
 rationally justifiable assertion/reasonable statement can be scientifically verified
 Subjectivism(Interpretivism or constructionism) – There is no such thing as a
single reality- there are multiple realities. Because, every individual constructs
his/her own realities – reality is socially constructed.
 perceives that social phenomena is created from perceptions and
consequent actions of those social actors concerned with their existence
8/12/2023
8

9. PHILOSOPHICAL BASES OF RESEARCH…CONT’D
Due to the differences in their philosophical backdrops (ontological positions or
world outlooks), positivists and subjectivists adhere to different scientific
epistemologies.
Positivists – employ quantitative methods to objectively measure scientific
phenomena (e.g., Political attitude).
 For example, they use rating scales/measuring scale to study the attitude of
local people towards refugees from neighboring states.
Subjectivist (Interpretivism) – employ qualitative approach -it focuses on
description of conversational or textual (Verbal) data, photographic and video
etc…
 For example, to study the same problem mentioned above, a researcher
uses narrative interview or focus group discussion instead of rating scales.
8/12/2023
9

10. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The norms of sciences
 Science is an objective, logical and systematic method of analysis
of phenomena, devised to permit the accumulation of reliable
knowledge (Lastrucci, 1963)
 Objective- striving for objectivity- being explicit with our
measurement so that others can easily find the errors we make-
precise and accurate
 Method – a set of techniques for gathering and handling data. 3
assumptions:
 Reality is out there to be discovered
 Direct observation is the way to discover it (including lab)
 Material explanations for observable phenomena are always
sufficient- metaphysical explanations are not needed.
 Reliable – the information obtained must be reliable and
accurate
8/12/2023
10

11. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Scientific method in problem solving may be an informal application of problem
identification, hypothesis formulation, observation, analysis and conclusion.
 Research follows a scientific method.
 Scientific method is a way of thinking about problems and solving them.
 It helps to explain the problem and its alternative solutions in an orderly
way. It provides common ground for inquiry by those attempting to
understand reality.
 No rigid formula can be used for all scientific discovery or scientific
writing.
Two basic assumptions underlie/cause scientific investigations:
(1) events taking place in nature can be understood if one asks the right
questions and does the right analysis, and;
(2) a systematic relationship holds between a cause and its effects, although,
random elements that give rise to error in predictions also may be present.
8/12/2023
11

12. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The scientific method has at least five major steps:
1. Identification and definition of the problem.
2. Formulation of a hypothesis-an idea as to a probable solution to
the problem, an intelligent guess or hunch.
3. Collection, organization, and analysis of data
4. Formulation of conclusions
5. Verification, rejection, or modification of the hypothesis by the test
of its consequences in a specific situation
8/12/2023
12

13. ***TYPES OF RESEARCH***
Criteria Types
On the basis of
Objectives
Fundamental/Basic
Research
Applied
Research
Action
Research
On the Basis of
Nature of Data
Qualitative Research Quantitative
research
On the basis of
Nature of Findings
Explanatory Research Exploratory
Research
Descriptive
Research
On the basis of
Experimental
manipulations
Experimental Research Non-Experimental Research
On the basis of
approach involved
Longitudinal Research Cross Sectional Research
8/12/2023
13

14. A. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
1. Fundamental or basic research :
 The formal and systematic process of deductive- inductive analysis,
leading to the development of theories
 a type of research that may have limited direct application, may be later
result in further research of an applied nature.
e.g. how is the universe began? NASA
Salient Features:
 Based on the belief ‘Knowledge for the knowledge’s sake’ or for
advancement of knowledge.
 Take place in a laboratory or a sterile environment , sometimes with
animals
 Understanding of theoretical relationship b/n variables
 Exploratory in nature
8/12/2023
14

15. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
2. Applied research -
 Has the characteristics of fundamental research
 Adapts the theories developed through fundamental research to the
solution of immediate societal problems.
 Aimed at improving a product or a process- testing theoretical
concepts in actual problem situations
 a type of research that has direct value to practitioners but in which the
researcher has limited control over the research setting.
Salient Features:
 solve specific or practical questions
 involves precise measurement of the characteristics and describes
relationships between variables of a studied phenomenon
 collection and analysis of data to examine the usefulness of theory in
solving practical educational problems
8/12/2023
15

16. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
Relationship between Basic & Applied Research
 The interaction of basic and applied research
 Basic research provides the theory that produces the concepts for
solving (e.g. educational) problems
 Applied research provides the data to help support, guide, and
revise the development of theory in education
 Doing basic research ensures that applied researchers do not need
to reinvent the wheel every time they start on a new project,
because the groundwork has been done.
8/12/2023
16

17. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
3. Action research
• focuses on immediate application, not on the development of theory or
on generalization of applications.
• it has placed its emphasis on a problem here and now in a local setting.
• its findings are to be evaluated in terms of local applicability, not
universal validity.
 it is a systematic inquiry done by researchers to gather information
about, and subsequently improve, the ways their particular activities
operate, how they work, and how well they impact others.
8/12/2023
17

18. RESEARCH GENERATES KNOWLEDGE IN
ORDER TO:
8/12/2023
18
action
change
within a
system
pave the
way for
change
build
broader
understandin
g
Basic
or pure
research
Action research Critical /
radical
ethnography
Applied /
evaluative
research participatory/
emancipator
y
technical/
practical
emancipate
through
action
expose and
change the
dominate
system

19. B. RESEARCH BY NATURE OF FINDINGS
1. Descriptive research
 describes and interprets what is. It is concerned with conditions or
relationship that exist, opinions that are held, processes that are going
on, effects that are evident or trends that are developing.
 is non-experimental -deals with the relationship between variables, the
testing of hypotheses, the development of generalizations, principles or
theories that have a universal validity
 researcher does not manipulate the variables, decides who receive the
treatment or arrange or events to happen
 involved events that have already taken place and may be related to a
present condition.
 population census, household expenditure patterns, time use studies,
crime rate
 accurate descriptions of the level of unemployment or poverty have
historically played a key role in social policy reforms
 Good description provokes the ‘why' questions of explanatory research
8/12/2023
19

20. RESEARCH BY NATURE OF FINDINGS
2. Explanatory research
 focuses on the why questions. Eg.Why many postgraduate students at
HwU choose the SGDS?
 develop explanations about why the crime rate is as high as it is, why
some types of crime are increasing or why the rate is higher in some
countries than in others.
 answering the `why' questions involves developing causal explanations.
 causal explanations argue that phenomenon Y (e.g. income level) is
affected by factor X (e.g. gender). Some causal explanations will be
simple while others will be more complex. For example, we might argue
that there is a direct effect of gender on income (i.e. simple gender
discrimination).
8/12/2023
20

21. RESEARCH BY NATURE OF FINDINGS
3. Exploratory research
 the most useful (and appropriate) research design for those projects
that are addressing a subject about which there are high level of
uncertainty and ignorance about the subject, and when the problem is
not very well understood (i.e. very little existing research on the subject
matter).
 such research is usually characterized by a high degree of flexibility and
lacks a formal structure.
 Main aim of exploratory research is to identify the boundaries of the
environment in which the problems, opportunities or situations of
interest are likely to reside, and to identify the salient factors or
variables that might be found there and be of relevance to the research.
8/12/2023
21

22. C. RESEARCH BY EXPERIMENTAL MANIPULATIONS
1. Experimental research
 provides a systematic and logical method for answering the question, “if
what will happen -this is done under carefully controlled conditions
 experimenters manipulate/control certain stimuli, treatments, or
environmental conditions and observe how the condition or behavior of
the subject is affected or changed.
 provides a method of hypothesis testing observed effects to confirm or
disconfirm it.
 it is the classic method of the science laboratory, where elements
manipulated and effects observed can be controlled.
2. Non-experimental research
 Is used where it is unethical to manipulate the independent variable, for
but instead, relies on interpretation, observation or interactions to come
to a conclusion.
 in studies whose purpose is description e.g./ survey, case studies
8/12/2023
22

23. RESEARCH DESIGNS
Survey research
 provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes,
or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population.
 It includes cross-sectional (a specific point in time) and longitudinal
(over long period) studies using questionnaires or structured
interviews for data collection with the intent of generalizing from a
sample to a population.
8/12/2023
23

24. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Chapter 4
 Narrative design
Exploring individual stories to describe the lives of people.
 Ethnographic design
Exploring the shared culture of a group.
 Grounded Theory design
Exploring common experiences of individuals to
develop a theory.
8/12/2023
24

25. TYPES OF RESEARCH…
 All research involves the elements of observation, description,
and the analysis of what happens under certain circumstances.
 A rather simple four point analysis may be used to classify social
science research. Practically all studies fall under one, or a
combination, of these types:
 1. Historical research describes what was. The process involves
investigating, recording, analyzing, and interpreting the events of the
past for the purpose of discovering generalizations that are helpful in
understanding the past and the present and, to a limited extent, in
anticipating the future.
 2. Descriptive research (quantitative) uses quantitative methods to
describe what is, describing, recording, analyzing, and interpreting
conditions that exist. It involves some type of comparison or contrast
and attempts to discover relationships between existing non-
manipulated variables. Some form of statistical analysis is used to
describe the results of the study.
8/12/2023
25

26. TYPES OF RESEARCH….CONT’D
 3. Qualitative descriptive research uses non-quantitative methods to
describe what is. Qualitative descriptive research uses systematic
procedures to discover non-quantifiable relationships between
existing variables.
 4. Experimental research describes what will be when certain
variables are carefully controlled or manipulated. The focus is on
variable relationships. As defined here, deliberate manipulation is
always a part of the experimental method.
 These four categories are not meant to imply that a study cannot
include more than one category. For example, a study might include
both quantitative and qualitative methods.
8/12/2023
26

27. RESEARCH DESIGN
 Research design is the overall plan for connecting the conceptual
research problems to the pertinent (and achievable) empirical
research.
 The research design articulates what data is required, what
methods are going to be used to collect and analyze this data, and
how all of this is going to answer your research question.
 Constitutes decisions regarding what, where, when, how
much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research
study. What data will you gather and how will you handle these
data? How do you analyze it? Which software will you use?
 Both data and methods, and the way in which these will be
configured in the research project, need to be the most effective in
producing the answers to the research question (taking into account
practical and other constraints of the study).
 Different design logics are used for different types of study.
8/12/2023
27

28. ***HYPOTHESIS***
 A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a particular phenomena.
 Eg 1, most people believe that drinking too much coffee will lead to
heart disease.
 This is a tentative explanation for the phenomena of ‘heart disease –
but we need to do research to prove or disprove this hypothesis.
 Eg 2: After reviewing the data that shows increased female
participation in HE than 2 decades ago, I may hypothesize as follows:
 Hypothesis: There are twice as much female electrical engineers
today than they were two decades ago.
 (Observe that, in this hypothesis, there is a ‘hunch’ i.e. the double rate of enrollment
growth i.e. 15% to about 30%) . However, the proportion of female electrical engineers
may be higher than the previous or remained the same, or may be even lower). But the
researcher may prove or disprove his/her hypothesis after analyzing the data.
8/12/2023
28

29. WHAT IS A THEORY?
A theory:
 Is an attempt to develop a general explanation for some
phenomenon.
 defines non-observable constructs that are inferred from observable
facts and events and that are thought to have an effect on the
phenomenon under study.
 Describes the relation among key variables for the purpose of
explaining current sate or predicting future occurrence.
 establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between variables with
the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena.
 Those who engage in pure research devote their energies to the
formulation and reformulation of theories and may not be
concerned with their practical applications.
 when a theory has been established, it may suggest many
applications of practical value. According to John Dewey - there
was nothing more practical than a good theory.
 Eg. Theories of the behavior of gasses were essential to the
development of refrigeration and air conditioning.
8/12/2023
29

30. OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF VARIABLES
Operational definitions are not the dictionary definition
of variables. Rather, it refers to the manner in which
variables are measured in your study.
Much more precise and unambiguous definitions of
variables can be stated in operational form, which
stipulates the operation by which they can be observed
and measured.
8/12/2023
30

31. OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS …
Example
 Factors affecting women‘s representation in top-
leadership positions at HwU as a function of their
Educational Status in Ethiopia’
 Variables (Operationally defined)
1. Women Representation: Proportion of women in HwU
above dept head
2. Top management: Leadership positions ranging from
head of dept to a president
3. Education Status: The academic qualification of
women. E.g. Diploma, Degree, MA, PhD
8/12/2023
31

32. THANK YOU!!
8/12/2023
32