Serum chloride and bicarbonate
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SERUM ELECTROLTES have the main and basic role on our body in maintaining the body fluids homeostasis.
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Chloride
Chloride is an electrolyte that is important for various bodily processes. Its homeostasis is interrelated with sodium and potassium. Chloride levels in the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid are tightly regulated to maintain membrane equilibriums. Chloride is primarily excreted through urine in parallel with sodium levels. Conditions like dehydration, Cushing's syndrome, and renal tubular acidosis can cause hyperchloremia, while excessive vomiting, sweating, and Addison's disease can result in hypochloremia. The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance receptor chloride channel is involved in the pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis.
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Sodium, potassium and chloride
The document discusses three important electrolytes: sodium, potassium, and chloride.
Sodium is obtained mainly from table salt, fish, and meat. Its daily requirement is 4-6g and it is important for fluid balance, nerve impulse conduction, and acid-base balance. Disorders include hyponatremia and hypernatremia.
Potassium is obtained from foods like bananas, cereals, and fish. Its daily requirement is 4g and it is crucial for heart contraction, intracellular pressure, and acid-base balance. Disorders are hypokalemia and hyperkalemia.
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SODIUM METABOLISM
Sodium is the main electrolyte found in extracellular fluid. The total sodium content in the body is approximately 3,700 mmol, with 75% being exchangeable and 25% non-exchangeable in tissues like bones. Sodium is absorbed through sodium pumps in intestinal and renal cells and is essential for maintaining osmotic pressure, water balance, acid-base balance, muscle and nerve function, and cell membrane permeability. Disorders of sodium balance can result in hyponatremia or hypernatremia. Hyponatremia is a low serum sodium level below 130 mEq/L caused by water retention or sodium loss, while hypernatremia is a high level above 145 mEq/L due to water loss
Blood calcium
Calcium is essential for many bodily functions like bone formation, muscle contraction, nerve signaling etc. 99% of calcium is stored in bones and remaining 1% is present in extracellular fluids. Calcium level is tightly regulated by parathyroid hormone, calcitriol (active form of vitamin D), and calcitonin. These hormones work to maintain calcium between 9-11 mg/dL by mobilizing calcium from bones and kidneys and absorbing it from intestines. An imbalance in these regulatory hormones can lead to conditions like osteoporosis and rickets.
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Chloride
Chloride is an electrolyte that is important for various bodily processes. Its homeostasis is interrelated with sodium and potassium. Chloride levels in the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid are tightly regulated to maintain membrane equilibriums. Chloride is primarily excreted through urine in parallel with sodium levels. Conditions like dehydration, Cushing's syndrome, and renal tubular acidosis can cause hyperchloremia, while excessive vomiting, sweating, and Addison's disease can result in hypochloremia. The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance receptor chloride channel is involved in the pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis.
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Sodium, potassium and chloride
The document discusses three important electrolytes: sodium, potassium, and chloride.
Sodium is obtained mainly from table salt, fish, and meat. Its daily requirement is 4-6g and it is important for fluid balance, nerve impulse conduction, and acid-base balance. Disorders include hyponatremia and hypernatremia.
Potassium is obtained from foods like bananas, cereals, and fish. Its daily requirement is 4g and it is crucial for heart contraction, intracellular pressure, and acid-base balance. Disorders are hypokalemia and hyperkalemia.
Chloride does not have a set daily requirement as its main source is sodium. It is important for
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SODIUM METABOLISM
Sodium is the main electrolyte found in extracellular fluid. The total sodium content in the body is approximately 3,700 mmol, with 75% being exchangeable and 25% non-exchangeable in tissues like bones. Sodium is absorbed through sodium pumps in intestinal and renal cells and is essential for maintaining osmotic pressure, water balance, acid-base balance, muscle and nerve function, and cell membrane permeability. Disorders of sodium balance can result in hyponatremia or hypernatremia. Hyponatremia is a low serum sodium level below 130 mEq/L caused by water retention or sodium loss, while hypernatremia is a high level above 145 mEq/L due to water loss
Blood calcium
Calcium is essential for many bodily functions like bone formation, muscle contraction, nerve signaling etc. 99% of calcium is stored in bones and remaining 1% is present in extracellular fluids. Calcium level is tightly regulated by parathyroid hormone, calcitriol (active form of vitamin D), and calcitonin. These hormones work to maintain calcium between 9-11 mg/dL by mobilizing calcium from bones and kidneys and absorbing it from intestines. An imbalance in these regulatory hormones can lead to conditions like osteoporosis and rickets.
Serum Electrolytes (potassium)
It is the review research based topic of presentation on most important body's serum electrolytes "potassium". it is really a very useful effort to collecting the data material from such a many different websites and pages as i gave references in the end of this presentation.
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Calcium functions and significance
1) Calcium is essential for muscle contraction, nerve conduction, hormone release, and blood coagulation. The daily intake is approximately 1000mg, found in foods like milk, cheese, fish, and beans.
2) Calcium is absorbed in the small intestine through both passive diffusion and active transport involving vitamin D. Around 30-80% is absorbed depending on dietary intake.
3) Calcium levels in the body are tightly regulated by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin which act on the intestines, bone, and kidneys to influence absorption, resorption, and excretion.
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Sodium is the most prevalent cation in extracellular fluid and is essential for maintaining fluid balance and nerve/muscle function. Its levels are regulated by hormones like aldosterone that increase sodium reabsorption. Abnormal sodium levels can indicate conditions like hyponatremia or hypernatremia.
Potassium is the major intracellular cation and regulates muscle/nerve excitability. Its levels are maintained primarily via the sodium-potassium pump. Potassium is excreted renally, and hypokalemia can result from inadequate intake, excessive loss, or conditions affecting aldosterone. Precise sample collection and testing are needed to accurately assess
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Calcium
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and is primarily stored in bones and teeth. It performs many important biochemical functions including bone and teeth formation, muscle contraction, blood coagulation, and nerve transmission. Calcium levels are regulated by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin. These hormones work to maintain calcium homeostasis by impacting absorption in the intestine and kidneys and mobilization from bones.
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Urine is commonly used for diagnostic testing and monitoring disease. Proper collection and preservation of urine specimens is important to avoid preanalytical errors. There are various urine collection methods depending on the test and patient, including random, first morning, and timed collections. Preservatives like boric acid and hydrochloric acid are often used to maintain specimen stability, though some tests require no preservative. Careful instruction of patients and labeling of specimens is necessary when collecting 24-hour urine samples.
Chloride
Chloride is the most abundant anion in extracellular fluid, neutralizing sodium's positive charge. Approximately 88% is in extracellular fluid and 12% intracellular. Chloride is absorbed in the small intestine through sodium-glucose cotransport and sodium-chloride cotransport, and follows sodium passively. It is important for gastric acid production, immune function through phagocytosis, and the chloride shift in red blood cells. Chloride is excreted through the GI tract, skin, and kidneys similarly to sodium. Deficiency can cause metabolic alkalosis while toxicity is rare with intake under 28g daily.
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creatinine clearance test
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CHLORIDE METABOLISM
Chloride is a major anion found primarily in the extracellular fluid of the body. It is absorbed rapidly from food in the gastrointestinal tract and excreted mainly through urine. Chloride plays important roles in water balance, acid-base balance, and activation of enzymes. Disorders of chloride involve abnormal levels, with hypochloremia caused by gastrointestinal or renal losses and hyperchloremia associated with conditions like dehydration, Cushing's syndrome, or respiratory acidosis.
Gastric function test
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Estimation of uric acid
Uric acid is produced from the breakdown of purines from ingested and cellular nucleic acids. It circulates in the blood as sodium urate and is excreted by the kidneys. Elevated levels of uric acid, called hyperuricemia, can be caused by increased production or decreased excretion. The objective is to determine uric acid levels to diagnose hyperuricemia. Serum separated quickly after collection is the best specimen, avoiding lipemic or high bilirubin samples. The uricase method enzymatically converts uric acid to allantoin and hydrogen peroxide to produce a violet dye for measurement. Elevated levels can indicate increased production from genetic disorders or tissue breakdown,
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This document discusses methodology for lipid profile analysis, including cholesterol, lipoproteins, triglycerides, and apolipoproteins. It covers pre-analytical considerations for specimen collection and storage, as well as analytical methods such as enzymatic, chemical, and electrophoretic techniques. Cholesterol is measured using enzymatic cholesterol oxidase or chemical Liebermann-Burchardt reactions. Lipoproteins are separated by polyanion precipitation, electrophoresis, or ultracentrifugation. Triglycerides are analyzed chemically or enzymatically using glycerol kinase. Quality control is also important in lipid analysis.
sodium and its medical importance for medical students
Sodium is an essential mineral found primarily in bones and extracellular fluid. It is required for muscle function, heart beat initiation and maintenance of fluid balance. The daily recommended intake is 5-10g but many consume more than required due to salt's flavoring properties. The kidneys regulate sodium levels by filtering it from blood and reabsorbing almost all of it. Both low (hyponatremia) and high (hypernatremia) sodium levels can occur due to various diseases, hormone imbalances, or prolonged medication use. Common causes of hyponatremia include Addison's disease while hypernatremia can result from Cushing's syndrome or prolonged corticosteroid administration.
Iron metabolism
- Iron is essential for hemoglobin and myoglobin and the total body iron content is around 3-5g, with most found in blood, liver, bone marrow and muscles.
- Daily iron requirements vary from 20mg for adults to 40mg for pregnant women. Absorption is regulated to maintain iron balance in the body.
- Sources of iron include leafy vegetables, pulses, cereals, liver and meat. Absorption is affected by factors like ascorbic acid and interfering substances like phytic acid.
Serum calcium
This patient is most likely suffering from primary hyperparathyroidism. Two reasons support this diagnosis: 1) fluctuating calcium levels are typical of primary hyperparathyroidism and 2) a higher calcium level should be accompanied by a low PTH, but this patient has a high PTH with higher calcium levels. The commonest cause of primary hyperparathyroidism is a single adenoma of the parathyroid gland, present in around 85% of cases.
ELECTROLYTE BALANACE .CHIORIDES AND BICARBONATES
Chlorides and bicarbonates play important roles in electrolyte balance and regulating acid-base equilibrium.
Chlorides are obtained from foods like salt, whole grains, vegetables, eggs and milk. They help regulate acid-base balance and fluid levels. Bicarbonates also help maintain blood pH through buffer systems. The kidneys and respiratory system help eliminate excess acids and regulate pH levels. Imbalances can cause acidosis or alkalosis disorders. Precise regulation of chlorides and bicarbonates is vital for normal physiological functioning.
metabolic acidosis
Metabolic acidosis occurs when the body produces excessive acid or the kidneys cannot remove enough acid from the blood. It is classified based on whether the anion gap is normal or high. Common causes include ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis, renal failure, and toxins. Symptoms may include weakness, nausea, and dehydration. Treatment focuses on treating the underlying cause, fluid replacement, and correcting electrolyte and pH imbalances through bicarbonate therapy or dialysis. Those at risk include those with kidney disease, diabetes, obesity, or a diet high in fat and low in carbohydrates.
Chloride (mineral)
Minerals are inorganic elements that make up a small portion of the human body but are essential for growth, health, and various bodily functions. Chloride is a major mineral that occurs primarily in body fluids. It is involved in acid-base balance, water balance, and enzyme activation. Dietary sources of chloride include table salt, chlorinated water, and leafy vegetables. Chloride absorption and excretion occurs primarily through the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract. Disorders can result from too much or too little chloride and affect conditions like acid levels and cystic fibrosis.
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2) Calcium is absorbed in the small intestine through both passive diffusion and active transport involving vitamin D. Around 30-80% is absorbed depending on dietary intake.
3) Calcium levels in the body are tightly regulated by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin which act on the intestines, bone, and kidneys to influence absorption, resorption, and excretion.
Metabolism of potassium and its clinical significance
A comprehensive presentation on Metabolism of Potassium and its clinical significance for MBBS, BDS, B Pharm & Biotechnology students to facilitate self- study.
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The document discusses electrolytes, focusing on sodium and potassium.
Sodium is the most prevalent cation in extracellular fluid and is essential for maintaining fluid balance and nerve/muscle function. Its levels are regulated by hormones like aldosterone that increase sodium reabsorption. Abnormal sodium levels can indicate conditions like hyponatremia or hypernatremia.
Potassium is the major intracellular cation and regulates muscle/nerve excitability. Its levels are maintained primarily via the sodium-potassium pump. Potassium is excreted renally, and hypokalemia can result from inadequate intake, excessive loss, or conditions affecting aldosterone. Precise sample collection and testing are needed to accurately assess
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Introduction to calcium
Sources of calcium
Dietary requirement of calcium
Calcium absorption
Biochemical function of calcium
Calcium in blood
Calcium estimation
Factors regulating calcium level in blood
Disease states of calcium
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This document discusses the serum phosphorus test, which measures the level of phosphorus in the blood. Phosphorus is essential for bone growth, energy storage, and muscle and nerve function. Too much or too little phosphorus can cause health issues. The serum phosphorus test can detect hyperphosphatemia (high phosphorus) or hypophosphatemia (low phosphorus), but further tests are needed to determine the underlying cause. A doctor may order this test if symptoms indicate abnormal phosphorus levels, if other blood tests show abnormalities, or if the patient has conditions like kidney disease that could affect phosphorus. High or low levels can be caused by dietary, medication, or health issues.
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Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and is primarily stored in bones and teeth. It performs many important biochemical functions including bone and teeth formation, muscle contraction, blood coagulation, and nerve transmission. Calcium levels are regulated by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin. These hormones work to maintain calcium homeostasis by impacting absorption in the intestine and kidneys and mobilization from bones.
Liver function test ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE (AST)
This document summarizes the aspartate aminotransferase (AST) liver function test. AST is an enzyme found in heart, liver, muscles and kidneys. Elevated serum AST levels indicate diseases of these tissues, such as myocardial infarction and viral hepatitis. The test procedure involves measuring the concentration of oxaloacetate hydrazone formed during the AST-catalyzed reaction between L-aspartate and 2-oxoglutarate. Normal AST ranges are between 7-89 U/L, with elevated levels signifying potential liver or heart issues.
Urine preservative
Urine is commonly used for diagnostic testing and monitoring disease. Proper collection and preservation of urine specimens is important to avoid preanalytical errors. There are various urine collection methods depending on the test and patient, including random, first morning, and timed collections. Preservatives like boric acid and hydrochloric acid are often used to maintain specimen stability, though some tests require no preservative. Careful instruction of patients and labeling of specimens is necessary when collecting 24-hour urine samples.
Chloride
Chloride is the most abundant anion in extracellular fluid, neutralizing sodium's positive charge. Approximately 88% is in extracellular fluid and 12% intracellular. Chloride is absorbed in the small intestine through sodium-glucose cotransport and sodium-chloride cotransport, and follows sodium passively. It is important for gastric acid production, immune function through phagocytosis, and the chloride shift in red blood cells. Chloride is excreted through the GI tract, skin, and kidneys similarly to sodium. Deficiency can cause metabolic alkalosis while toxicity is rare with intake under 28g daily.
Blood urea nitrogen
This document provides information about blood urea nitrogen (BUN) including its clinical significance, methods of determination, and reference values. BUN is formed in the liver from protein catabolism and excreted by the kidneys. It is an important indicator of kidney and liver function, hydration status, and protein balance. BUN is determined using chemical or enzymatic methods and is useful for evaluating renal function, diagnosing renal diseases, and monitoring dialysis treatment. Normal reference ranges are provided for BUN in serum/plasma and urine.
creatinine clearance test
The document discusses kidney functions and urine formation. The kidney removes waste, regulates electrolytes and water, and maintains acid-base balance. Urine is formed in nephrons through glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. Tests like creatinine clearance and inulin clearance are used to measure glomerular filtration rate (GFR) as an indicator of kidney function. Proper collection and preservation of urine samples is important for accuracy in clearance and other renal function tests.
CHLORIDE METABOLISM
Chloride is a major anion found primarily in the extracellular fluid of the body. It is absorbed rapidly from food in the gastrointestinal tract and excreted mainly through urine. Chloride plays important roles in water balance, acid-base balance, and activation of enzymes. Disorders of chloride involve abnormal levels, with hypochloremia caused by gastrointestinal or renal losses and hyperchloremia associated with conditions like dehydration, Cushing's syndrome, or respiratory acidosis.
Gastric function test
The document summarizes various tests used to assess gastric function, including examination of resting gastric contents, fractional gastric analysis using a test meal, and analysis after stimulation using alcohol, caffeine, histamine, insulin, or pentagastrin. Abnormal responses include hyperacidity, hypoacidity, and achlorhydria. The tests provide information about conditions like gastric ulcers, pernicious anemia, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Serum pepsinogen levels can also indicate gastric secretion and conditions like peptic ulcers or pernicious anemia. A newer histalog-azure dye test analyzes urine dye levels after stimulation to assess gastric HCl presence.
Estimation of uric acid
Uric acid is produced from the breakdown of purines from ingested and cellular nucleic acids. It circulates in the blood as sodium urate and is excreted by the kidneys. Elevated levels of uric acid, called hyperuricemia, can be caused by increased production or decreased excretion. The objective is to determine uric acid levels to diagnose hyperuricemia. Serum separated quickly after collection is the best specimen, avoiding lipemic or high bilirubin samples. The uricase method enzymatically converts uric acid to allantoin and hydrogen peroxide to produce a violet dye for measurement. Elevated levels can indicate increased production from genetic disorders or tissue breakdown,
Lipids methodology
This document discusses methodology for lipid profile analysis, including cholesterol, lipoproteins, triglycerides, and apolipoproteins. It covers pre-analytical considerations for specimen collection and storage, as well as analytical methods such as enzymatic, chemical, and electrophoretic techniques. Cholesterol is measured using enzymatic cholesterol oxidase or chemical Liebermann-Burchardt reactions. Lipoproteins are separated by polyanion precipitation, electrophoresis, or ultracentrifugation. Triglycerides are analyzed chemically or enzymatically using glycerol kinase. Quality control is also important in lipid analysis.
sodium and its medical importance for medical students
Sodium is an essential mineral found primarily in bones and extracellular fluid. It is required for muscle function, heart beat initiation and maintenance of fluid balance. The daily recommended intake is 5-10g but many consume more than required due to salt's flavoring properties. The kidneys regulate sodium levels by filtering it from blood and reabsorbing almost all of it. Both low (hyponatremia) and high (hypernatremia) sodium levels can occur due to various diseases, hormone imbalances, or prolonged medication use. Common causes of hyponatremia include Addison's disease while hypernatremia can result from Cushing's syndrome or prolonged corticosteroid administration.
Iron metabolism
- Iron is essential for hemoglobin and myoglobin and the total body iron content is around 3-5g, with most found in blood, liver, bone marrow and muscles.
- Daily iron requirements vary from 20mg for adults to 40mg for pregnant women. Absorption is regulated to maintain iron balance in the body.
- Sources of iron include leafy vegetables, pulses, cereals, liver and meat. Absorption is affected by factors like ascorbic acid and interfering substances like phytic acid.
Serum calcium
This patient is most likely suffering from primary hyperparathyroidism. Two reasons support this diagnosis: 1) fluctuating calcium levels are typical of primary hyperparathyroidism and 2) a higher calcium level should be accompanied by a low PTH, but this patient has a high PTH with higher calcium levels. The commonest cause of primary hyperparathyroidism is a single adenoma of the parathyroid gland, present in around 85% of cases.
ELECTROLYTE BALANACE .CHIORIDES AND BICARBONATES
Chlorides and bicarbonates play important roles in electrolyte balance and regulating acid-base equilibrium.
Chlorides are obtained from foods like salt, whole grains, vegetables, eggs and milk. They help regulate acid-base balance and fluid levels. Bicarbonates also help maintain blood pH through buffer systems. The kidneys and respiratory system help eliminate excess acids and regulate pH levels. Imbalances can cause acidosis or alkalosis disorders. Precise regulation of chlorides and bicarbonates is vital for normal physiological functioning.
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Metabolic acidosis occurs when the body produces excessive acid or the kidneys cannot remove enough acid from the blood. It is classified based on whether the anion gap is normal or high. Common causes include ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis, renal failure, and toxins. Symptoms may include weakness, nausea, and dehydration. Treatment focuses on treating the underlying cause, fluid replacement, and correcting electrolyte and pH imbalances through bicarbonate therapy or dialysis. Those at risk include those with kidney disease, diabetes, obesity, or a diet high in fat and low in carbohydrates.
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Minerals are inorganic elements that make up a small portion of the human body but are essential for growth, health, and various bodily functions. Chloride is a major mineral that occurs primarily in body fluids. It is involved in acid-base balance, water balance, and enzyme activation. Dietary sources of chloride include table salt, chlorinated water, and leafy vegetables. Chloride absorption and excretion occurs primarily through the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract. Disorders can result from too much or too little chloride and affect conditions like acid levels and cystic fibrosis.
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The document discusses acid-base balance in the human body. It states that acid-base balance is important for homeostasis and physiological functions. Acids are constantly produced during metabolism but are balanced by base production to maintain pH. The body regulates acid-base status through buffer systems, respiration, and the kidneys. Disturbances can cause acidosis or alkalosis, which are classified as respiratory or metabolic based on their underlying causes.
lecture7acidbasebalance-180702011803.pdf
The document discusses acid-base balance in the human body. It states that acid-base balance is important for homeostasis and physiological functions. Acids are constantly produced during metabolism but are balanced by base production to maintain pH. The body regulates acid-base status through buffer systems, respiration, and the kidneys. Disturbances can cause acidosis or alkalosis, which are classified as respiratory or metabolic based on their underlying causes.
acid base (1).pptx
The document discusses acid-base balance in the human body. It states that acid-base balance is important for homeostasis and physiological functions. Acids are constantly produced in the body through metabolism but are balanced by base production to maintain pH. The body regulates acid-base balance through buffer systems, respiration, and the kidneys. Disturbances can cause acidosis or alkalosis, which are classified as respiratory or metabolic based on their underlying causes. The anion gap is also discussed as a clinical measure for evaluating acid-base imbalances.
acid base balance diagnosis and treatment
Types , causes and diagnosis and treatment of acid base balance
Fluids and electrolytes in surgical pt [autosaved]
This document provides an overview of fluids and electrolytes in surgical patients. It discusses body water volumes, osmotic pressure, signs and symptoms of volume disturbances, and various electrolyte abnormalities including hypernatremia, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, and hypokalemia. Common causes and clinical manifestations of each electrolyte imbalance are presented. The document also reviews intravenous fluid types, including crystalloids like lactated Ringer's solution and normal saline, as well as colloid solutions. Fluid and electrolyte requirements in surgical patients are discussed. References utilized include Schwartz's Principles of Surgery and Sabiston Textbook of Surgery.
Fluid management in surgical patient oke
This document discusses fluid and electrolyte management in surgical patients. It covers the anatomy of body fluids including total body water, intracellular fluid, and extracellular fluid. It then discusses normal fluid and electrolyte exchange including water and salt balance. Various fluid volume, concentration, and composition changes are classified and their signs and symptoms described. Specific topics covered in depth include hyponatremia, hypernatremia, acid-base balance, and potassium abnormalities.
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Disorders of fluid balance, electrolyte disturbances and acid base balance
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Fluids and electrolytes in surgical pt [autosaved]
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Serum chloride and bicarbonate
- 2. CHLORIDE ION: • Major extracellular anion PHYSIOLOGY: • maintaining osmolality, blood volumes and electric neutrality. REGULATION: • Chloride absorbed in intestinal tract • Filtered out by glomerulus • Counter movement with sodium MAINTANENCE : Chloride shift ( sodium reabsorption is limited by amount of chloride by counter current)
- 3. SIGNIFICANCE OF BODY’S CHLORIDE • One of the most important of electrically charged minerals is chloride. • It works with other electrolytes, such as sodium and potassium, to help balance acids and bases in our body. • It also helps move fluid in and out of body cells. • It also helps maintain proper blood volume, blood pressure, and pH of your body fluids.
- 4. SOURCES OF CHLORIDE • Chloride is found in table salt or sea salt as sodium chloride. • It is also found in many vegetables. • Foods with higher amounts of chloride include seaweed, rye, tomatoes, lettuce, celery, and olives. • Chloride, combined with potassium, is also found in many foods.
- 5. PATHOLOGY, SERUM CHLORIDE LEVEL: • Hyperchloremia –when the serum chloride level increases in our body. • Hypochloremia –when the serum chloride level decreases in our body.
- 6. HYPER-CHLOREMIA • Dehydration • Cushing syndrome:(reabsorption of chloride at renal tubules decreases) • Severe diarrhea: (Loss of bicarbonate and Compensatory retention of chloride) • Pyelonephritis (low serum level of chloride)
- 7. HYPO-CHLOREMIA • Dehydration, Excessive vomiting( body fluid loss)hyperchloremia alkalosis and “Increase plasma bicarbonate”. • Addison’s disease : Aldosterone decreases, Reabsorption of CL decreases and Conc. of CL ion decreases. • Respiratory alkalosis: Elimination of CO2 increase, Blood bicarbonate conc. Increases and CL ion conc. Decreases.
- 8. DETERMINATION OF CL-ION : • Specimen : serum or plasma METHODS : ISE (Ion selective electrode) Amperometric coulometric titration Colorimetry
- 9. SERUM CHLORIDE Reference range : • Plasma/serum 98-107m mol/L • Urine 24 hr 110-250 m mol/day ; varies with diet
- 10. BICARBONATE ION : • Second most abundant anion in the ECF. • CO2 comprises HCO3, H2CO3 and dissolved CO2 comprises HCO3 accounting more than 90% of total CO2 at physiologic pH. • HCO3 diffuses out of the cell in exchange for Cl. ion to maintain ionic charge neutrality within cell. REGULATION : • H2CO3 CO2 + H20 Diffuses back to ECF CLINICAL APPLICATIONS : ALKALOSIS : • Increased HCO3 hence increased CO2 • Secretion of HCO3 increased in urine ACIDOSIS : • Increased excretion of H+ into urine • CO2 decreases in blood
- 11. DETERMINATIONS OF SERUM BICARBONATE & METHODS : • ISE Method : • ENZYMATIC Method :
- 12. REFERENCES • https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/319801.php • https://courses.lumenlearning • https://www.uofmhealth.org/health-library/hw6323 • https://www.healthline.com/health/overhydration