Vision involves light entering the eye, refracting through the cornea and lens, and projecting onto the retina where rods and cones detect light and detect shape and movement. The optic nerve then carries visual impulses to the brain which interprets them into the correct image. Hearing involves sound waves stimulating nerve cells in the ear that send impulses to the brain, where they are interpreted as sound. Smell occurs when odor molecules stimulate olfactory cells in the nasal passages, sending impulses to the brain for identification. Taste is detected by taste buds on the tongue that send impulses to the brain when dissolved foods contact them.
The Human sensory system consists of the following sub-systems:
• Visual system
• Auditory system
• Somatosensory system
• Gustatory system
• Olfactory system
• Vestibular system
In a sensory system, a sensory receptor is a sensory nerve ending that responds to a stimulus in the internal or external environment of an organism. In response to stimuli, the sensory receptor initiates sensory transduction by creating graded potentials or action potentials in the same cell or in an adjacent one.
Structures that are specialized to respond to the changes in the environment
These are called stimuli
Sensory receptors in periphery detects the stimuli
Sensation and interpretation takes place in the brain
he nervous system is a network of neurons whose main feature is to generate, modulate and transmit information between all the different parts of the human body. This property enables many important functions of the nervous system, such as regulation of vital body functions (heartbeat, breathing, digestion), sensation and body movements. Ultimately, the nervous system structures preside over everything that makes us human; our consciousness, cognition, behaviour and memories.
The nervous system consists of two divisions;
Central nervous system (CNS) is the integration and command center of the body
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) represents the conduit between the CNS and the body. It is further subdivided into the somatic nervous system (SNS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Cells of the nervous system
Two basic types of cells are present in the nervous system;
Neurons
Glial cellsCells of the nervous system
Two basic types of cells are present in the nervous system;
Neurons
Glial cells
The site where an axon connects to another cell to pass the neural impulse is called a synapse. The synapse doesn't connect to the next cell directly. Instead, the impulse triggers the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters from the very end of an axon. These neurotransmitters bind to the effector cell’s membrane, causing biochemical events to occur within that cell according to the orders sent by the CNS.
There are two types of neurons, named according to whether they send an electrical signal towards or away from the CNS;
Efferent neurons (motor or descending) send neural impulses from the CNS to the peripheral tissues, instructing them how to function.
Afferent neurons (sensory or ascending) conduct impulses from the peripheral tissues to the CNS. These impulses contain sensory information, describing the tissue's environment.Glial cells
Glial cells (Neuroglia); Image:
Astrocyte (Astrocytus); Image:
Glial cells
Neuroglia
1/5
Synonyms: Neuroglia
Glial cells, also called neuroglia or simply glia, are smaller non-excitatory cells that act to support neurons. They do not propagate action potentials. Instead, they myelinate neurons, maintain homeostatic balance, provide structural support, protection and nutrition for neurons throughout the nervous system.
This set of functions is provided for by four different types of glial cells;
Myelinating glia produce the axon-insulating myelin sheath. These are called oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS. Remember these easily with the mnemonic "COPS" (Central - Oligodendrocytes; Peripheral - Schwann)
Astrocytes (CNS) and satellite glial cells (PNS) both share the function of supporting and protecting neurons.
Other two glial cell types are found in CNS exclusively; microglia are the phagocytes of the CNS and ependymal cells which line the ventricular system of the CNS. The PNS doesn’t have a glial equivalent to microglia as the phagocytic role is performed by macrophages.
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2. Vision
• As light enters the eye, it passes through the cornea (transparent section
at front of eye) and is refracted.
• Then light passes through a lens and is refracted again.
• The lens directs the light onto the retina (which is tissue at the back of
the eye that is sensitive to light)
• Rods and Cones are found in the retina. (Cells) Cones respond to bright
light and color. Rods respond to dim light.
• They are used to detect shape and movement.
3. • The light stimulates impulses to pass to the optic nerve.
• The optic nerve carries the impulses to the vision area of
the brain. The image is upside down and reversed.
• The brain interprets the image correctly and you see
what you are looking at.
• The brain interprets images received from both eyes and
blends them into one image. This gives you a sense of
distance.
4. Hearing
• Sound waves are necessary for hearing and they can
travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
Sound waves reach your ear and stimulate nerve cells
deep within your ear.
Impulses from these cells are sent to the brain.
When the sound impulse reaches the hearing area of the
brain, it responds and you hear a sound.
5. • The ear has three sections:
Outer ear
Intercepts sound waves and funnels them down the ear canal to the middle ear
Middle ear
Ear drum vibrates
Three tiny bones: hammer, anvil and stirrup (vibrate)
Inner ear
Cochlea and semicircular canals
Cochlea is fluid-filled structure that vibrates once the stirrup vibrates.
The vibrations bend sensory hair cells in the cochlea which cause electrical
impulses to be sent to the brain by a nerve.
Depending on how the nerve endings are stimulated, you hear a different type of
sound.
6. • Balance
Structures in your inner ear control your balance.
Cristae ampullaris
Maculae
7. Smell
• You smell food because molecules from the food move into
the air.
• If they enter your nasal passages, these molecules
stimulate sensitive nerve cells (olfactory cells).
• Olfactory cells are kept moist by mucus and when
molecules in the air dissolve in the moisture, the cells
become stimulated.
8. • If enough molecules are present, an impulse
starts in these cells, then travels to the brains
where it is interpreted.
• If it is recognized by a previous experience, you
can identify the odor. If you don’t recognize it, it
is remembered and identified next time.
9. Taste
• Taste buds on your tongue are the major sensory
receptors for taste.
• Five taste sensations
Sweet
Salty
Sour
Bitter
MSG
10. • In order to taste something, it has to be dissolved in
water so saliva begins the process of tasting.
• When a solution of saliva and food washes over taste
buds, impulses are sent to your brain.
• The brain interprets the impulses, and you identify the
tastes.
11. Smell and Taste (working together)
• Smell is needed to identify some foods.
• Saliva in your mouth mixes with the food, odors
travel up the nasal passage in the back of your
throat.
• Olfactory cells are stimulated and the taste and
smell is sensed.
12. Drugs affect the nervous system
• Depressant
Alcohol (disrupts neurons cell functions)
Destroys brain and liver cells
• Stimulants
Any substance that speeds up the activity of the
central nervous system
Caffeine