The document discusses the critical sanitation issues in India, emphasizing that 638 million people lack access to toilets, with a significant portion of the rural population still practicing open defecation. It highlights the health implications, including high rates of diarrhea among children, and the economic burden caused by inadequate sanitation facilities. Furthermore, the document addresses the challenges in rural areas, the impact on education, and the urgency for improved sanitation solutions as part of broader development goals.

1. Sanitation in Schools
Sanitation in the Indian Educational Context
An Opportunity Analysis
101

2. “No innovation in the past 200 years has done more to save lives
and improve health than the sanitation revolution triggered
by invention of the toilet, but it did not go far enough. It only
reached one-third of the world. What we need are new approaches.
New ideas. In short, we need to reinvent the toilet”.
Sylvia Mathews Burwell
President of the Gates Foundation
Global Development Program
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103

3. Index
Why India
Activities Conducted with the Children
School Interviews Additional Notes
140
Water, Sanitation & Hygiene in Schools - Boys
142
Water, Sanitation & Hygiene in Schools - Girls
The Indian Context
140
143
Sanitation Priorities and Desires
144
Toilet Infrastructure Problems
145
India Profile
111
India in Numbers
111
Culture and Religion
114
The Urban Area
147
Understanding Sanitation
115
SULABH International
148
Common Water and Sanitation Related Diseases
116
Teach 4 India
150
Sanitation Facilities and Practices
116
Chehak Trust
154
Improved Sanitation
117
158
Sanitation and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG)
117
The Society for the Promotion of Area Resource Centres
(SPARC)
Sanitation in India
118
Ashansh
160
India and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG)
119
Perceptions and Behaviors
162
The Education System In India
120
Water, Sanitation & Hygiene in Schools
121
Benchmarks
122
Problems, Needs and Key Success Factors
166
Project Goal
124
Opportunity Spaces
168
Synthesis
Projections
Observation
The India Field Research Program
Projections
172
The Rural Area
129
Bibliography
175
Rural Schools General Information
135
On Sanitation
136
Rural Schools Sanitation Information
104 - India · Sanitation in Schools - D4SB
128
138
105

4. Why India?
Poverty in India remains a major issue where the country is estimated to have a third of the world’s poor, particularly
in rural areas. In order to spread and accelerate the social business movement, GCL has expanded and launched its
most recent office in Mumbai. In addition, the Yunus social business fund in Mumbai is currently under development in
order to encourage the initiation of social business by providing adequate funding across all social sectors in India.
As the Design for Social Business team, our challenge in India was to identify opportunities that can lead to the
improvement of sanitation, one of the country’s most pressing problems. With education being one of the most
important channels for penetration, we focused our design research on schools in rural and urban areas around
Mumbai for a better comprehension of the effects poor sanitation has on students’ attendance, dropout rates and
overall health.
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107

5. The
Indian
Context
108 - India · Sanitation in Schools - D4SB
109

6. India Profile
Being the seventh biggest country by geographical area, the Independent Republic of India is the second most
populous country in the world. With over 1.17 billion people (2010 est.), India is projected to be the world’s most
populous country by 2025, with its population reaching 1.6 billion by 2050.
India in Numbers
Total population in India
1.2 billion
29%
urban
Total population in Europe
852.4 million
Total population in the US
320 million
37%
illiterate
72.5%
not poor
71%
rural
63%
literate
Capital City: New Dehli
Income Level: Lower middle income
GDP: $1,729,010,242,154 (2010 est.)
GNI per Capita: $1,340 (2010 est.)
27.5%
poor
Rural and urban
populations
Literacy rate
(for people age 15
and above)
Poverty head count ratio
at national poverty line
111

7. total population
lacking access
to any kind of toilet
638 million
rural population
lacking access
to any kind of toilet
630 million
rural population
lacking access
to any kind of toilet
630 million
total population
1.2 billion
total rural population
852 million
total population lacking
access to any kind of toilet
638 million
only
Sanitation in India. An Overview
112 - India · Sanitation in Schools - D4SB
children under 5
die annually due to diarrhea
of India’s wastewater
is being treated
113

8. Culture and Religion
There are about 18 official languages in India with Hindi and English being the most spoken. Most of its population is
Hindu followed by Muslims and other religions which include Sikhs and Christians among others.
India Caste System
The Hindu caste system hierarchically categorizes people based on their occupations where each person is born into an
unalterable social status. The four primary castes are: Brahmin (the priests), Kshatriya (warriors and nobility), Vaisya
(farmers, traders and artisans) and Shudra (tenant farmers and servants). The people born outside the caste system are
called Dalits or “untouchables”. The outcastes’ occupations, regarded as impure, include butchering, rubbish removal
and waste disposal.
Although today caste discrimination is officially illegal, it remains prevalent mostly in rural areas. The Indian
government has made strong efforts in minimizing the significance of the caste system through expanding education
and economic opportunity in the countryside.
BRAHMINS
Priests & Academics
KSHATRIYAS
Warriors & Kings
VAISHYAS
Business community
Muslim - 13.4%
KSHUDRAS
Others - 6.1%
Servants, subordinate to Vaishyas,
Khastriyas & Brahmins
DALIT
Hindu - 80.5%
Untouchables, subordinate to all,
responsible for all the lower-order work
Figure 3. The most common religions in India.
Understanding
Sanitation
Sanitation is understood as providing facilities and services that ensure the safe
disposal of human excreta (urine and feces), which are meant to avoid open space
defecation. The lack of infrastructure combined with inadequate sanitation practices
is a major cause of disease worldwide. Improving sanitation has proven to have a
significant beneficial impact on health both in households and across communities.
Sanitation also refers to the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such
as garbage collection and wastewater disposal.
Figure 4. The caste system in India
114 - India · Sanitation in Schools - D4SB
115

9. Common Water and Sanitation Related Diseases
About 4 billion cases of
diarrhea per year cause 1.8
million deaths, over 90%
of them (1.6 million) are
among children under five.
Among the inadequate sanitation practices, the one that poses the greatest threat
to human health is open defecation. When talking about proper sanitation, water
contamination cannot be excluded since in indiscriminate defecation, excreta often
finds its way into sources of drinking water and food and is the root cause of faecal-oral
transmission of diseases.
Unicef defines a list of common unimproved sanitation related diseases, which include:
Diarrhea, Cholera, parasitic worms, Typhoid, and Dysentery among others. Diarrhea
is the most important public health problem directly related to water and sanitation.
About 4 billion cases of diarrhea per year cause 1.8 million deaths, over 90% of them
(1.6 million) are among children under five.
Improved Sanitation
‘Improved’ sanitation facilities are those that reduce
the chances of people coming into contact with human
excreta and therefore becoming more sanitary than
unimproved facilities. These include:
One single gram of feces
can contain:
10,000,000
1,000,000
viruses
»» Toilets that flush waste into a piped sewer.
»» Septic tank or pit.
»» Dry pit latrines constructed with a cover.
bacteria
1,000
parasite cysts
100
parasite eggs
Western style toilet
with flush
Squat toilet
Figure 5. Icons showcasing a Western style toilet and a Squat toilet
Table 1. Parasites found in one gram of feces.
that is more common in India.
Sanitation Facilities and Practices
Bush or field
Due to the absence of proper infrastructure, excreta is deposited on the ground and
covered with a layer of earth, wrapped and thrown into garbage or defecation is done
into surface water.
Bucket
Refers to the use of a container for the retention of faeces, urine and anal cleaning
material, which are periodically removed for treatment, disposal,
or used as fertilizer.
Hanging toilet / latrine
Refers to a toilet built over a body of water in which excreta drops directly.
Pit latrine
This facility uses a hole in the ground for excreta collection. In some cases, this
kind of infrastructure may have a squatting slab or seat raised above the surrounding
ground level to prevent surface water from entering the pit. An improvement in the
infrastructure consists of a ventilation pipe that extends above the latrine roof and is
covered fly-proof netting (Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine ‘VIP’).
116 - India · Sanitation in Schools - D4SB
Flush toilet
This kind of toilet uses a tank that flushes water and is sealed in order to prevent the
passage of flies and odors (also called water seal). A pour flush toilet also uses a water
seal, but in contrary to the normal flush toilet, it has no tank and uses water poured by
hand for flushing.
Composting toilet
A dry toilet into which carbon-rich materials are added to the excreta which is kept
in special conditions to produce inoffensive compost; it may or may not have a urine
separation device.
Piped sewer system
Piped system and facilities (sewerage) that collect, pump, treat and dispose human
excreta and wastewater and remove them from the household.
Septic tank
An excreta collection device consisting of a water-tight settling tank. Normally located
underground, away from the house or toilet, the treated effluent of the tank usually
seeps into the ground through a leaching pit or discharged into a sewerage system.
These kinds of facilities are only considered to be
improved if they are private rather than shared with other
households.
Some 2.6 billion people worldwide – two in five – do not
have access to improved sanitation, and about 2 billion of
these people live in rural areas. According to the United
Nations, proper sanitation can foster social development,
which at its core, is about human dignity and human
rights. For the people who lack access to a proper
infrastructure and practice open defecation, human
dignity is under daily assault. A toilet can improve social
development in a number of ways:
»» By aiding progress toward gender equality
»» By promoting social inclusion
»» By increasing school attendance
»» By building community pride and social cohesion
»» By contributing to poverty eradication
What is an improved facility?
Improved
Flush or pour flush to:
»» piped sewer system
»» septic tank
»» pit latrine
Ventilated improved pit
latrine (VIP)
Unimproved
Flush or pour flush to
elsewhere.
Pit latrine without slab
or open pit
Hanging pit or hanging
latrine
Bucket
Composting toilet
No facilities (bush or
field); open defecation
Table 2. Differences between improved and unimproved sanitation
facilities
Sanitation and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG)
Goal No. 7c. specifically states “Halve, by 2015, the
proportion of people without sustainable access to safe
drinking water and basic sanitation”. Which in this case
would be considered as access to improved sanitation
facilities.
Though proper sanitation has huge benefits in public
health, gender equity, poverty reduction and economic
growth, it is often a relatively low priority within the
official development plans. Domestic budget allocations
and official development assistance are often scarce, and
in many instances, interventions are not targeted to the
population most in need.
At the current rate of progress, the world will miss the
target of halving the proportion of people without access
to basic sanitation. Though global sanitation coverage
increased from 49% in 1990 to 59% in 2004. In 2008,
an estimated 2.6 billion people around the world lacked
access to an improved sanitation facility. If the trend
continues, that number will grow to 2.7 billion by 2015.
Figure 5. Millennium Development Goal 7: Ensure Environmental
Sustainability
117

10. Sanitation in India
It is estimated that 55% of all Indians
(638 million) still lack access to any
kind of toilet. Of this total, people
who live in urban slums and rural
environments are affected the
most. In rural areas, the scale of the
problem is particularly daunting,
as 74% of the rural population
still defecates in the open.
India and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG)
It is estimated that 55% of all Indians (638 million) still
lack access to any kind of toilet. Of this total, people who
live in urban slums and rural environments are affected
the most. In rural areas, the scale of the problem is
particularly daunting, as 74% of the rural population still
defecates in the open.
In both environments, cash income is very low and
the idea of building a facility for defecation inside or
near the house may not seem natural. Where facilities
do exist, they are often inadequate. The sanitation
landscape in India is still littered with 13 million
unsanitary bucket latrines, which require scavengers to
conduct house-to-house excreta collection. Over 700,000
Indians still make their living this way.
The situation in urban areas is not as critical in terms
of scale, but the sanitation problems in crowded
environments are typically more serious and immediate.
In these areas, the main challenge is to ensure safe
environmental sanitation. Even in areas where households
have toilets, the contents of bucket-latrines and pits,
even of sewers, are often emptied without regard for
environmental and health considerations.
Sewerage systems, if available, suffer from poor
maintenance, which leads to overflows of raw sewage.
Today, with more than 20 Indian cities with populations
of more than 1 million people, the antiquated sewerage
systems cannot handle the increased load of wastewater.
These cities include Indian megacities, such as Kolkata,
Mumbai, and New Delhi. In New Delhi alone, existing
sewers originally built to serve a population of only 3
million cannot manage the wastewater produced daily by
the city’s present inhabitants, now close to a massive 14
million.
The capacity for treating wastewater is also acutely
inadequate, as India has neither enough water to flushout city effluents nor enough money to set up sewage
treatment plants. In 2003, it was estimated that only
30% of India’s wastewater was being treated. Much of the
rest—amounting to millions of liters daily— find its way
into local rivers and streams. According to the country’s
Tenth Five-Year Plan, three-fourths of India’s surface
118 - India · Sanitation in Schools - D4SB
water resources are polluted, and 80% of the pollution is
due to sewage alone.
Diarrhea accounts for almost one fifth of all deaths (or
nearly 535,000 annually) among Indian children under
5 years. Also, rampant worm infestation and repeated
diarrhea episodes result in widespread childhood
malnutrition. Due to this problem, India is losing billions
of dollars each year. Illnesses are costly to families,
and to the economy as a whole in terms of productivity
losses and expenditures on medicines, health care, and
funerals. The economic toll is also apparent in terms of
water treatment costs, losses in fisheries production and
tourism, and welfare impacts, such as reduced school
attendance, inconvenience, wasted time, and lack of
privacy and security for women.
Major factors that have impeded effective implementation
of a rural sanitation program include very low priority
given to sanitation as a social and community issue,
lack of infrastructure and systems to reach all rural
households, and most importantly, scarcity of water.
India seems to be lagging behind MDG target values in almost all the
parameters under consideration. Human development hence remains to
be an area of concern. Education and health are the critical areas and
we continue to be distant from the targeted goals. Infant and child
mortality, undernourished population, as well as maternal mortality are
specific areas where much still needs to be achieved. Even though the
overall access to improved sanitation facilities has increased, the gap
between rural and urban areas is still very high.
Goal Indicator
Proportion of population below poverty line (%)
Value
(Year)
27.5
(2005)
Undernourished people as in % of population
Proportion of undernourished children
Ratio of girls to boys in primary education
Literacy rate of 15 - 24 year olds
Ratio of girls to boys in secondary education
Under five mortality rate
(per 1,000 live births)
Infant mortality rate
76
(2005)
46
(2006)
0.94
(2007)
82.1
(2007)
0.82
(2007)
74.6
(2006)
53
(per 1,000 live births)
(2008)
India Sanitation in Numbers
Maternal mortality rate
(per 100,000 live births)
(2006)
Only 31% of India’s population use improved
sanitation (2008)
Rural population with sustainable access to an improved
water source (%)
(2008)
Urban population with sustainable access to an
improved water source (%)
(2008)
Rural population with access
to sanitation (%)
(2008)
Urban population with access
to sanitation (%)
(2008)
In rural India 21% use improved sanitation facilities
(2008)
145 million people in rural India gained access to
improved sanitation between 1990-2008
211 million people gained access to improved
sanitation in whole of India between 1990-2008
India is home to 638 million people defecating in the
open; over 50% of the population.
Table 3. India sanitation landscape in numbers.
Deaths due to malaria per 100,000
Deaths due to TB per 100,000
Deaths due to HIV/AIDS
254
79.6
95.0
44.0
81
2
(2008)
23
(2009)
170,000
(2009)
MDG
target
18.75
31.1
27.4
1
100
1
41
27
109
80.5
94
72
72
-
Table 4. Progress towards achieving MDGs in India with goals related to sanitation highlighted in gray.
119

11. The Education System In India
Water, Sanitation & Hygiene in Schools
The Indian government provides free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14. The
country is still grappling with serious problems of inadequate access, quality and inefficiency in the
schooling system.
Unsafe water and unhygienic conditions not only have an adverse effect on the health of below five
year old children but also have an impact on the health, attendance and learning capacities of school
children.
The school system in India works through 3 different models:
The Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 emphasized
sanitation in schools as a priority action, while the Thirteenth Session of the United Nations
Commission on Sustainable Development in 2005 reiterated this position and also emphasized the need
for hygiene education in schools. Providing adequate water and sanitation in schools is essential if
the enrollment, learning and retention of girls is to improve, and is key to meeting MDGs 2 and 3. Lack
of appropriately private and sanitary facilities has a greater impact on girls than boys, contributing
to decisions on whether they ever attend, and then influencing how long they stay in school. Girls
sometimes do not attend school during menstruation or drop out at puberty because of a lack of
sanitation facilities that are separate for girls and boys. In addition, adolescent girls are particularly
at risk of anaemia aggravated by parasitic infections and ‘iron stress’ when sanitation is inadequate or
unavailable at school or at home.
»» Public
»» Private
»» Public Private Partnership (PPP)
Public private partnership (PPP) is an approach used by the government to deliver quality services to its
population by using the expertise of the private sector. In this arrangement, a private party performs
part of the service delivery functions of the government while assuming associated risks. In return, the
private party receives a fee from the government according to pre-determined performance criteria.
Such payment may come out of the user charges, through the government budget or a combination of
both. Broadly, PPP in school education can operate to provide (1) infrastructural services, (2) support
services and (3) educational services. The simplest being one in which the private partner provides
infrastructure services but the government provides educational and other support services. The second
type is where the private sector provides both infrastructure and support services. While the third type
is where the private sector provides infrastructure, support and educational services bundled together.
A variety of public private partnership already exists in the field of education, the most common being
the government aided schools system in the country. In 2006-07, 30.05% of higher secondary schools
and junior colleges, 27.15% of high schools, 6.75% of upper-primary schools, 3.19% of primary schools
and 5.15% of pre-primary schools were run by private institutions with substantial financial assistance
from the State Government.
Alliances with different NGO’s also play a strong role in assisting the State or the private sector to
complement the education system and to improve its effectiveness. The effectiveness of NGO action
is best in evidence in the successful schooling of underprivileged children, communities in remote
locations, scheduled caste, scheduled tribe and other children that face social barriers to education.
All children perform better and have enhanced self-esteem in a clean, hygienic environment. Properly
used and maintained sanitation facilities and an adequate supply of water for personal hygiene and
hand washing prevent infections and infestations, while also contributing to overall public health and
environmental protection. Programs that combine improved sanitation and hand-washing facilities
with hygiene education in schools can improve the health of children for life and can promote positive
change in communities. Field assessments show that teaching children the importance of hand washing
and other good hygiene habits promotes increased knowledge and positive behavior change, especially
when the schools are equipped with an adequate number of safe toilets or latrines and sufficient water
for washing.
Adolescent girls are particularly at risk of anaemia aggravated by
parasitic infections and ‘iron stress’ when sanitation is inadequate
or unavailable at school or at home.
One of the key challenges of the education system in India is the universalization of good quality basic
education. Almost two decades of basic education programs have expanded access to schools in India.
The number of out of school children decreased from 25 million in 2003 to an estimated 8.1 million in
2009. Most of those still not enrolled are from marginalized social groups. Two issues remain:
»» Reaching some 8 million children not yet enrolled and ensuring retention of all students till they
complete their elementary education (8th standard).
»» Ensuring education is of good quality so it improves learning levels and cognitive skills.
»» Also, India still faces challenges in providing quality Early Childhood Development programs for all
children.
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121

12. Benchmarks
Many initiatives aiming to improve water supply and sanitation have been tested and applied in India. These include:
Community-Led Total
Sanitation (CLTS)
Guardian Microfinance
Institution
The Jamshedpur Utilities
and Services Company
WASH
in Schools
“Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) is an innovative
approach for mobilizing communities to build their own
toilets and stop open defecation”.
Gramalaya Urban and Rural Development Initiatives and
Network (GUARDIAN) is a microfinance institution (MFI)
and a not for profit institution established in 2007 for
providing microcredit to the urban and rural poor in order
to create household infrastructures on water and toilets.
The Jamshedpur Utilities and Services Company (JUSCO)
sets the example for a one-stop integrated urban water
system management under a corporate framework.
The services cover operation and maintenance of the
entire water cycle and include intake, treatment,
transportation and distribution of water. In addition,
JUSCO maintains a ‘river-to-river’ management through
the treatment of wastewater that meets international
effluent quality standards.
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene education in schools
(WASH in Schools) is a program for schools within a
community that seeks to implement hygiene education
in order to enhance the well-being of children and their
families.
The CLTS approach recognizes that merely building
infrastructure and providing toilets does not ensure
their usage within a community and often leads to
the dependency of these communities on subsidies.
Therefore, CLTS focuses on “the behavioral change
needed to ensure real and sustainable improvements”
by raising awareness, triggering desire for change and
supporting communities in taking action and ownership
over appropriate local solutions to become open
defecation free.
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With the support of nationalized banks, communities,
NGO and donor agencies and through women self help
groups (SHG) and women joint liability groups (JLG),
Guardian is capable of lending credit to the poorer
communities for the promotion of water and toilet
facilities.
Call to Action for WASH in Schools 2010 is the result of
collaboration between UNICEF and several international
partners supporting WASH in Schools programming. It
calls on decision makers to increase investments and on
concerned stakeholders to plan and act in cooperation so
that all children go to a school with child-friendly water
sanitation and hygiene facilities.
123

13. Project Goal:
Identify opportunity spaces
for improving sanitation
within the educational
sector in India.
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125

14. Observation
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127

15. The India Field Research Program
India Trip Program (16th - 26th August)
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
15
16
17
18
19
20
Arrive to Mumbai
Introductions D4SB
and GCL India at The
Hub
Leave Mumbai to
Satara
School visit #2Adarsh Vidyalaya
School visit #5Madhyamik Vidyalaya
School visit #1Dyan Uday School
School visit #3Karamveer Bhaurao
Patil Vidyalaya
School visit #4Bhagvan Mahavir
Adarsh Vidyalaya
22
23
24
25
26
27
Visit to Sulabh toilet
blocks
Teach for India visit
Chehak Trust visit
Sparc visit
School visit #6Holy Mother English
School
School visit #8Sahyog School
in Jari Mari Slum
Dharavi slum visit
Sunday
21
Hub event - a get
together with
representatives of the
social scene in India
Leave Satara back to
Mumbai
28
School visit #7The Divine Child
Community Visit
Table 5. The schedule of our 2 week research in India.
For a better comprehension of the sanitation problem in India, we planned our field trip to Mumbai for an intensive
2 week stay of research and observation. Through understanding the context of one of the most pressing problems in
India, the problem of sanitation, our objective was to identify opportunity spaces for improving sanitation within the
educational sector.
The excursion started off at the rural area of Satara, a city located in Satara District of Maharashtra state of India. We
visited 5 schools, talked with the students, teachers, principals, visited their facilities and discussed their problems
and needs. After Satara, we headed back to Mumbai, where we got to compare and contrase the differences between
the rural and urban areas. We visited several slums in Mumbai and talked with school students, teachers, principals,
community leaders, and community members. In addition, we met several NGO’s and organizations that are working on
the sanitation problems in India to better understand what is already being implemented.
The following section will describe some of the findings revealed from the interviews and activities that we conducted.
128 - India · Sanitation in Schools - D4SB
The Rural Area
129

16. Dyan Uday School - Satara
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Adarsh Vidyalaya - Rahimatpur
131

17. Karanveer Bahurao Patil Vidyalaya - Dhamner
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Bhagvan Mahavir Adarsh Vidyalaya - Thosegar
133

18. Rural Schools General Information
School General Information
Name of School
School
Area
School
Region
1.
Dyan Uday School
Rural
Satara
2.
Adarsh Vidyalaya
Rural
3.
Karamveer Bhaurao Patil
Vidyalaya
Rural
4.
Bhagvan Mahavir Adarsh
Vidyalaya
Rural
5.
Madhyamik Vidyalaya
Rural
Rahimatpur
Dhamner
School
Mgmnt.
Tuition
Fee
School
Type
School
Level
Midday
meals
# of
students
PPP
Free
Mixed, day
school
Secondary
Yes, for 5th
to 8th std.
160
students
5
(11am-5pm)
(5th to 10th
std.)
Mixed, day
school
Primary to
Secondary
Yes, for 1th
to 8th std.
1500
students
-
Mixed, day
school
Secondary
No
300
students
15
Av. 5 Rs./
month
Mixed, day
school
Secondary
Yes, for 5th
to 8th std.
265
students
-
Free
Mixed, day
school
Secondary
Yes
40
students
(25 boys and
5
(receives grants
to pay teachers
& meals)
PPP
(receives grants
to pay teachers
& meals)
Public
-
(11am-5pm)
Free
(11am-5pm)
Thoseghar
Bassappachi
Wadi
PPP
(receives grants
to pay teachers
& meals)
Public
(non-granted
school)
(depending on
cast & level of
poverty)
(11am-5pm)
(11am-5pm)
(1st to 10th
std.)
(5th to 10th
std.)
(5th to 10th
std.)
(8th to 10th
std.)
# of
teachers
(100 boys, 60
girls)
(100 boys, 200
girls)
15 girls)
Madhyamik Vidyalaya - Bassappachi Wadi
134 - India · Sanitation in Schools - D4SB
Table 6. General information from the rural schools visited in Satara.
135

19. On Sanitation
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137

20. Rural Schools Sanitation Information
School Sanitation Information
School Name
Toilets inside school
School Sanitation Information
Separate toilets for
boys and girls?
How many toilets?
Indoor or outdoor?
Closed or open?
Teachers have
separate toilets?
Yes
Water for flushing
inside toilet (tap)?
Is the (alternative)
water source close to
the toilet area?
Light inside toilet?
Which source?
No, they have to get
water with a bucket
from a tank
No, it is inside the
school, but away from
the toilet area
No, only natural light
(the closed toilet is
totally dark)
No
No
No, they have to get
water with a bucket
from a tank
No, it is inside the
school, but away from
the toilet area
No, only natural light
No
1.
Dyan Uday School
Yes
Yes
girls: 3 outdoor, open,
1 outooor, closed
2.
Adarsh Vidyalaya
Yes
Yes
girls: 3 outdoor, open
(for urination),
1 outdoor, closed
(for defecation)
boys: outdoor, open
(wall for urination)
and 1 outdoor,
closed squat toilet
(defecation)
3.
Karamveer Bhaurao
Patil Vidyalaya
Yes
Yes
girls: outdoor, open
facilities (for urination
& defecating)
boys: outdoor, open
facilities (for urination
& defecating)
No
No, they have to get
water with a bucket
from a tank
No
4.
Bhagvan Mahavir
Adarsh Vidyalaya
Yes
Yes
girls: 3 squat toilets
(indoor, closed) in
each of the 3 floors.
boys: 3 urinals (indoor,
open, separated by
walls) and one squat
toilet (indoor, closed)
in each of the 3 floors
No
Not at the time of
visit, problems with
the water system
Yes
Yes, windows and
artificial lighting
5.
Madhyamik Vidyalaya
Yes
Yes
girls: 3 urinating units
(outdoor, open) and 1
squat toilet (outdoor,
closed)
boys: 3 urinating units
(outdoor, open) and 1
squat toilet (outdoor,
closed)
1 handicapped toilet
No
No, water comes from
a separate tank
No
No, urinating facilities
are out on the open
and squat toilet has a
small window
No, they use the
locked toilet
No
Hand washing
facilities on site?
Soap?
Drinking water
facilities?
Toilets cleaning
schedule? By whom?
Is hygiene taught?
How?
No
Once a month by a
cleaning lady
Yes, it a new program
for the 8th std. It is
considered a delicate
subject
No
Yes
Once a day with only
water, once a week
with disinfectant
Yes, from 7th to 9th
standard, women from
public centers visits
school for hygiene and
sexual education
No
No
No
-
Yes (sinks within each
bathroom)
No
Yes (one in every floor)
Bathrooms are cleaned
after the 2 daily breaks
and disinfected once
a week by 3 male
janitors. Naftaline is
used in the facilities
to keep insects away
Yes, through several
boards around the
school and lessons
No
No
Yes
The students clean
the toilets daily, each
class is responsible for
one day of the week
Yes, through lessons
No
Table 7. Information related to sanitation gathered from the rural schools visited in Satara.
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139

21. Activities Conducted with the Children
During our school visits, we interviewed male and female students of various ages. Due
to the sensitivity of the topic being dealt with, we conducted some drawing activities
and exercises in order to facilitate the discussion.
We asked the students to:
»»
»»
»»
»»
Rate from 1 to 10 their toilets at home and at school.
Draw their ideal toilet and its components.
List in order of priority the 5 most essential elements that should be in a toilet.
Enlist the five things that bother them the most of the actual infrastructure.
Drawings From the Activities
School Interviews Additional Notes
One of the bigger schools was funded by the Empathy Foundation of Mumbai. The fund
of the trust is managed by a series of business men that give the funding and donations
for the construction of different schools (charity model). The money is given to the
contractors (1 time deal) which have to build the school and maintain it for 4 years.
In terms of infrastructure, the school had very good interior toilet facilities, one
compartment on each of the 3 floors, yet non functional due to a problem in the water
pump. Therefore, since 3 months before the time of visit, students had been urinating in
the open.
According to the principal of that same school, the number of toilets on site are
decided by the government which also provides material for cleaning. According to the
government, there should be one toilet seat for every 20 students.
Another school had very poor conditions of their exterior toilet compartment, with lots
of worms. The students avoid using the toilets at school and prefer to either wait all day
or go to their houses.
Girls usually go to the toilet with a friend to keep an eye. They usually go to the toilet 3
times a day, but a couple of them mentioned that they wait to go home.
One of the schools was started by a trust but the staff salary is not given by the
government. They do not have a building. They use a building from another school that
was constructed by the government.
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141

22. Water, Sanitation & Hygiene in Schools - Boys
“I don’t like it when dogs come into the
school’s toilet while I’m using it”.
Water, Sanitation & Hygiene in Schools - Girls
“Even though we have to clean our own
toilets at school, I don’t mind it because at
least I’m doing it with my friends and not
alone”.
“When I have my period, I find it difficult
to find a place where I can dispose my pad.
Sometimes I go home to change but then I
don’t come back to school”.
12 years old, 6th standard
Ashurni -
Shaavari -
“What I don’t like in my school’s toilets is
that there is no soap to wash my hands
after using it”.
“I hate the garbage surrounding the toilets
in my school”.
“I feel uncomfortable to use the toilet
when I have my period, but I have no other
choice”.
Gaurav -
13 years old, 8th standard
“In my previous school, there were no
toilets so we had to go in the open, behind
a bush or close to the river. We would also
go nearby the houses when people were
away. The students that lived close to the
school would go home to use the toilet”.
Akshay -
13 years old, 8th standard
11 years old, 7th standard
“I don’t like my school’s toilets because
they smell so bad. There are no doors or
windows”.
Chaitanya -
Aniket -
14 years old, 9th standard
Priyanka -
14 years old, 9th standard
11 years old, 6th standard
Deepali -
15 years old, 10th standard
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143

23. Sanitation Priorities and Desires
Toilet Infrastructure Problems
Most Desired Elements in a Toilet
School Name
Infrastructure Item
Dyan
Uday School
Smelly
Adarsh
Vidyalaya
Karamveer Bhaurao
Patil Vidyalaya
Bhagvan Mahavir
Adarsh Vidyalaya
Madhyamik
Vidyalaya
Dirty
Dark
Total
girls
(9)
boys
(0)
girls
(15)
boys
(11)
girls
(10)
boys
(10)
girls
(8)
boys
(8)
girls
(7)
boys
(6)
girls
boys
girls +
boys
enclosed compartment
9
.
10
.
6
5
8
8
7
6
40
19
59
water tap
9
.
13
.
7
4
4
8
7
5
40
17
57
handwash / soap
7
.
14
.
7
5
6
4
6
5
40
14
54
door
7
.
10
.
6
5
8
3
0
4
31
12
43
squat toilet
4
.
10
.
6
2
5
4
0
4
25
10
35
sink / basin
3
.
12
.
6
4
7
2
0
1
28
7
35
mirror
1
.
10
.
4
2
8
1
7
0
30
3
33
bucket / mug
7
.
2
.
2
2
4
7
5
2
20
11
31
window
4
.
2
.
0
3
8
1
7
5
21
9
30
light
0
.
7
.
4
0
8
2
5
2
24
4
28
water tank
4
.
7
.
3
1
0
1
2
5
16
7
23
towels / tissue paper
0
.
5
.
4
2
2
1
1
5
12
8
20
brush / broom
1
.
0
.
0
3
5
0
4
0
10
3
13
stairs (elevated)
3
.
1
.
0
1
2
0
3
2
9
3
12
dust bin
0
.
7
.
0
3
1
0
1
0
9
3
12
disinfectants
0
.
0
.
0
4
5
0
3
0
8
4
12
drinking water tank
0
.
0
.
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
5
5
flooring
0
.
0
.
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
4
4
hangers
0
.
3
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
3
urinals
0
.
0
.
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
doormat
0
.
0
.
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
Damaged
Uncomfortable
Invasive
leaking roofs
damaged tiles
Figure 7. The most common problems within the toilet facilities listed by the students.
Table 8. The items that the rural students listed in the exercise of what, in their opinion, are the most essential elements a toilet should have.
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145

24. “For the people of Jogeshwari a void
room in a big city is a greater horror
than open gutters and filthy toilets”.
Suketu Mehta
Maximum city
The Urban Area
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147

25. SULABH International
Sulabh International is a not for profit organization that works to improve the state of sanitation access through
developing facilities and educational programs. One of the main goals of Sulabh is to implement affordable sanitation
in order to liberate scavengers, the outcastes responsible for cleaning latrines, and ensure them social integration.
Toilet Block Information
Toilet Block 2
Cost
per use?
Sulabh
Toilet
Block #1
Built and
maintained
by SULABH
It works like
a private
company
Urinals are
free. Squat
toilets and
showers: 2
INR
Built and
maintained
by SULABH
It works like
a private
company
Sulabh
Toilet
Block #3
Toilet Block 1
Management
toilet block?
Sulabh
Toilet
Block #2
The pay-and-use Sulabh public toilet facilities are usually located in public commercial areas where they charge
a small fee for users in order to cover maintenance expenses and recover capital investments. The Sulabh toilet
blocks that we visited had separate compartments for men and woman, water and soap access in addition to an
attendant that receives the payments.
Toilet
Block
Built and
maintained
by SULABH
It works like
a private
company
Toilet Block 3
Separate
toilets
for men
and
women?
Open or
closed?
How many
toilet seats are
there
(men/women,
urinals/seats)?
Water
for
flusing
inside
toilet?
Shower?
Hand
washing
facilities
on site?
Soap?
Light
inside
toilet?
Source?
Workers
in the
complex?
Toilet
cleaning
schedule?
By who?
Additional
notes
Yes
Closed
Men:
6 urinals / 7
seats / 1 shower
Women:
3 squat toilets /
1 water basin
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, neon
lights
3 people.
1 cashier
at the
entrance
and 2
cleaners
Continuous
cleaning by
employees
No facilities
for
handicapped
Urinals are
free. Squat
toilets and
showers: 2
INR
Yes
Closed
Men: urinals 0
/ 6 seats / 1
shower
Women: 3
squat toilets
(no shower
faciltity but tap
and bucket to
shower)
Yes
No*
Yes
Yes
Yes, neon
lights
2 people.
1 cashier
at the
entrance
and 1
cleaner
Continuous
cleaning by
employees
No facilities
for
handicapped
Urinals are
free. Squat
toilets and
showers: 3
INR
Yes
Closed
Men: urinals 0
/ 6 seats / 1
seat toilet for
handicap / 2
showers
Women: 5 squat
toilets / 1 seat
toilet with rail
for handicap
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, neon
lights
3 people.
1 cashier
at the
entrance
and 2
cleaners
Continuous
cleaning by
employees
Toilet block
with airconditioner.
Urinating
facilities
outside
the main
structure
*Despite the absence of a shower, women would bath and wash clothes using a tap close to the floor (seated)
Table 9. Information related to Sulabh public toilet blocks in Mumbai.
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149

26. Teach 4 India
School General Information
School Name
Teach for India, a project of the not for profit organization Teach to Lead, is a nationwide movement whose goal is to eliminate
educational inequity in the country. It believes that through a movement of outstanding college graduates and young professionals
committed to a 2-year full time teaching in under resourced schools, the country will be able to achieve educational equity for
children. Teach for India provides the adequate resources, training and support to the teachers, called Fellows, in order to employ
innovative teaching strategies and maximize their effectiveness in the classroom. The movement’s objective in the long run is to
have a strong leadership force of alumni who regardless of their career path after their 2 years of service, will work together toward
eradicating educational inequity in India.
For the interviews we focused on two schools located in the slums of the rural area; Holy Mother English School in Malwani and The
Divine Child in Patham Wadi, Malad East. We also had the opportunity to visit three households of three of their students (Anwar,
Akram and Tilak). For our interviews we chose the following profiles: teachers, principal, student families and community members.
School
Area
School
Region
School
Mgmnt.
Tuition
Fee
School
Type
School
Level
Holy Mother English School
Urban
Malwani,
Mumbai
Private,
board of 7
trustees
150 INR
Mixed day
school
Kindergarten
(Free for
disabled &
orphans)
(morning &
afternoon shifts
of variable
duration)
Midday
meals
# of
teachers
No
707
students
(4 TFI fellows)
No
(Junior &
Senior)
# of
students
800
students
26
Primary &
Secondary
(1st to 9th
std.)
The Divine Child
Urban
Pathan
Wadi,
Mumbai
Private
school,
unaided
500 INR per
month per
student
English
day school,
mixed
-
26
(5 TFI fellows)
Table 10. General information from the urban schools visited in Mumbai.
Holy Mother English School
The Divine Child
School Sanitation Information
School Name
Toilets
inside
school?
Separate
toilets for
girls and
boys?
How many
toilets?
Indoor or
outdoor?
Closed or
open?
Teachers
have
separate
toilets?
Water for
flushing
inside
toilet
(tap)?
Is the
(alternative)
water source
close to the
toilet area?
Light
inside
toilet?
Which
source?
Hand
washing
facilities
on site?
Soap?
Drinking
water
facilities?
Toilet
cleaning
schedule?
By whom?
Is hygiene
taught?
How?
Holy Mother
English School
Yes
Yes
girls 1
boys 1
No
Yes
Yes
Yes, there
is a light
bulb in
the girls
toilet
No,
students
use the
tap inside
the toilet
No
Yes
-
Yes, it
a new
program
for the 8th
std. It is
considered
a delicate
subject
The Divine Child
Yes
Yes
girls: 1
squat
toilet
Yes
No
Close to the
girls’ toilet but
not the boys
No, only
natural
light
Yes, wash
basins on
ground
floor
No
-
-
-
(indoor,
closed)
boys: 3
urinals
(indoor,
open)
Table 11. Information related to sanitation gathered from the urban schools visited in Mumbai.
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151

27. Anwar and his Family. Storing Water.
Prabhavati Prajapati. The Story of a Slum Household
Prabhavati Prajapati, 35 years old, from Nepal married to a man from
Nepal who sells plastic in Mumbai. She is Hindu, and has 4 children, 3
boys and 1 girl and they all live together in their 12m2 house.
Anwar is 6 years old and lives with his parents in his house in Malwani. He is in the 2nd
standard at the Holy Mother English School and enjoys playing cricket and badminton
after school.
She and her husband moved from Nepal 6 to 7 years ago for employment
in Mumbai. They find the life difficult in the city but nonetheless better
than Nepal. After coming to Mumbai, she learned more about toilets. In
Nepal, they did not have toilets, they would go out in nature. Prabhavati
never studied but she is proud that her son goes to school and
understands things much better than she does. Her husband studied up
until the 8th standard and her son, Tilak, is currently in the 4th standard
at The Divine Child school and wants to study up until the ‘last standard’.
He is the eldest in the family and wants to become a cricket player.
Anwar’s house has one main room around 10m2 used as the living, sleeping and cooking
space and another small room used for washing and bathing. There is also an additional
back room used for storage. The house is also used as the work space for their family
business of packaging bracelet boxes.
Near their home, there is a common tap that has running water daily from 5:00 am to
7:00 pm. Each family can gain 10 minute access per day to the tap for a fee of 250
rupees per month. Within the 10 minutes, community members connect a hose to the
tap and fill up big tanks to store the water needed for the day.
From 8:00 am to 1:00 pm the Prajapati family has access to potable water
from the tap in the bathroom. They have 4 buckets on the side to fill
up with water. Prabhavati showed us how she makes a filter manually by
tying a cloth around the hose that is linked to the tap. The water coming
out of the hose and through the cloth becomes ‘drinkable water’.
The house is a single room, with one bed, one stove and a little
‘bathroom’ with a tap used to shower and wash the utensils. There are
no toilets in the house, the public toilets are outside and she goes
once a day to the toilet. If she needs to use it at night, her husband
accompanies her. They pay 10 INR/month for 24-hour access to the
toilet. Her children use the toilets at school since they are cleaner than
the public ones in the community.
Akram’s Family. Sharing the Toilet.
She would like the public toilets to be clean. Even though the people
from the municipality clean the toilets, she doesn’t think they do it well.
Akram is 9 years old and is in the 2nd standard at the Holy Mother English School. He
lives with his parents and 4 siblings in their house in Malwani.
They have a TV in their well-kept and clean house, hung diagonally over
the bed. The bed is covered with a plastic cover since she also uses it to
change her baby’s diapers.
Akram’s father is a cook in a catering company while his mother looks after the children.
Their house constitutes of a main room of about 13m2 used as the living, sleeping and
cooking room in addition to a smaller area around 1m2 used for washing and bathing.
She loves to watch family series on the TV alone and with friends, and in
her free time, she gets together with her friends to talk about what they
cooked and their favorite TV series.
Akram’s family uses the communal toilet blocks located about 200m away from the
house. The toilet block has 6 compartments and serves around 10 to 15 households,
approximately 75 people in total. The peak hours to use the toilet blocks are usually
from 7:00 am to 10:00 am when one have to queue to get in. The toilet block does not
have separate compartments for men and women and no taps with running water so
families have to bring their own water in buckets. The access to the toilet block is free
but the communities have to provide the soap and cleaning products in return. Someone
from the municipality cleans the block once or twice a week but in general they are not
well maintained. Many fights break out in the morning due to members not throwing
water after using the toilets.
She would like to have a toilet at home because then she is in control of
the cleanliness and hygiene.
It is too difficult for her to choose what her favorite part of the house
is because she likes all of it but perhaps the little shrine close to the
entrance is closest to her heart.
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28. Chehak Trust
Sahyog is a community based education and health initiative of the CHEHAK TRUST that works in two slum areas of
Mumbai, Jari Mari: Kurla and Dindoshi, Goregaon.
Its activities are mainly focused on improving access to healthcare and education by collaborating with existing
organizations and raising community awareness. One of Sahyog’s initiatives is an education program for adolescent
girls who have either never been to school or have dropped out from a previous school. The objective is to empower
these girls with a set of skills adequate to lead a better life. The education program is free of charge and requires
an admission test in order to place the girls in the appropriate level based on their skills and knowledge rather than
their age. In addition to academic skills, the teaching methodology focuses on daily life experiences and community
work that enable the girls to develop confidence and understanding of their rights. Sahyog also attempts to build
relationships with the families in order to support the girls’ role in the community.
Animals & Insects
Smell
“I give 10/10 for our toilet in school
because it is very clean. I give the
community public toilet 7/10 in the morning
when it is still clean and 2/10 in the
evening because it becomes very dirty”.
Dirtiness
“I don’t like it when toilets are dirty and
smelly and specially not when there are
insects and cobwebs!”
Yasmin -
16 years old, Sahyog Girls School
Alfrin -
16 years old, Sahyog Girls School
spit
Privacy
Location
shared
compartments
Figure 8. The main problems the students from Sahyog Girls’ School
experienced in public toilet facilities.
Most Desired Elements in a Toilet
Schools General Info
# of Times Mentioned
(11 girls)
enclosed compartment
School
Region
School
Mgmnt.
Tuition
Fee
School
Type
School
Level
Midday
meals
# of
students
# of
teachers
Urban
Jari Mari,
Mumbai
Private
school
funded by
Chehak Trust
Free
Girl school,
afternoon
4 levels
based on
knowledge
and skills
No
25
students
3
10
flooring
School
Area
10
squat toilet
School Name
Sahyog Girls’ School
Infrastructure
Elements
9
(1pm-6pm)
(age range 15
to 21 years old)
Table 13. General information from Sahyog Girls’ School.
bucket / mug
8
water tap
5
door
4
stairs (elevated)
3
handwash / soap
1
western toilet
1
Table 12. The items that the female students from Sahyog School
listed in the exercise of what, in their opinion, are the most essential
elements a toilet should have.
Schools Sanitation Info
School Name
Sahyog
Girls’ School
Toilets
inside
school?
Yes
Separate
toilets for
girls and
boys?
How many
toilets?
Indoor or
outdoor?
Closed or
open?
girl
school
girls: 1
squat toilet
indoor,
closed (for
urination)
Teachers
have
separate
toilets?
No
Water for
flushing
inside
toilet
(tap)?
Yes
Is the
(alternative)
water source
close to the
toilet area?
Yes
Light
inside
toilet?
Which
source?
Hand
washing
facilities
on site?
Soap?
Drinking
water
facilities?
Toilet
cleaning
schedule?
By whom?
Is hygiene
taught?
How?
Yes, light
bulb
Yes, wash
basin
Yes
no
Once a day
by cleaner
Yes, as
part of the
Life skills
program
Table 14. Information related to sanitation from Sahyog Girls’ School.
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155

29. Toilet Block Information
Toilet
Block
Management
toilet block?
Cost
per use?
Sahyog
Toilet
Block
Funded by
Bombay
Municipal
Corp. (public
Urinals are
free. Squat
toilets: 2
INR
Separate
toilets
for men
and
women?
Yes
Open or
closed?
How many
toilet seats are
there
(men/women,
urinals/seats)?
Water
for
flusing
inside
toilet?
Shower?
Hand
washing
facilities
on site?
Soap?
Light
inside
toilet?
Source?
Workers
in the
complex?
Toilet
cleaning
schedule?
By who?
Additional
notes
Closed
Men:
3 urinals /
6 seats
Some
are
working
No
No
No
Yes,
1 neon
light
1 cashier
at the
entrance
Not very
often, they
are very
dirty
Facilities
in very bad
condition
toilet)
Mgmnt. Jai
Maharashtra
Seva Trust/
Group
Table 15. Information related to the Sahyog public toilet block.
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157

30. The Society for the Promotion of Area Resource Centers (SPARC)
The Society for the Promotion of Area Resource Centrers (SPARC) is an NGO that supports the National Slum Dwellers
Federation and Mahila Milan in bringing the urban poor together in order to express their concerns and corroboratively
seek solutions to the problems they face. Together, these organizations form an alliance which works to improve the
lives of slum dwellers in India and around the world through the production of urban development practices and policies.
These community-driven practices are focused on building the capacity of organized communities of the urban poor,
especially women, in informal settlements to stop forced evictions and develop adequate negotiation skills on their
rights for housing, land and basic infrastructure.
We visited one of the Community Based Organizations (CBO’s) of the Dharavi Slum and a toilet block in the neighborhood.
Toilet Block Information
Toilet
Block
Management
toilet block?
Cost
per use?
Separate
toilets
for men
and
women?
Open or
closed?
How many
toilet seats are
there
(men/women,
urinals/seats)?
Water
for
flusing
inside
toilet?
Shower?
Hand
washing
facilities
on site?
Soap?
Light
inside
toilet?
Source?
Workers
in the
complex?
Toilet
cleaning
schedule?
By who?
Additional
notes
Dharavi
Toilet
Block
Funded
by World
Bank.
Managed
& maintained
by the
community
Urinals are
free.
Squat
toilets:
0.5 INR
20 INR per
family /
month
Yes
Closed
Men:
20 squat toilets
Women:
20 squat toilets
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, neon
lights
1 person
(caretaker)
3 times/
day:
morning,
lunch, night
Separate
area for
children
Table 16. Information related to the Dharavi public toilet block.
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31. Ashansh
Aashansh is a charity-run organization that gives free complementary school support for the children from the Adarsh
Megar community. The community is that of pavement dwellers that live with 30/40 rupees a day. Most of the children’s
families are fishermen, gamblers or drug dealers. The organization, founded by Ramesh Joshi, an ex-pavement dweller
himself, aims at removing children from the streets by providing them with fun education and activities during the
evenings in a rented room from a nearby school. We had the opportunity to speak to Ramesh and get to know some of
the children that belong to the NGO.
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“Education has changed my life”.
Ramesh Joshi
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32. Perceptions and Behaviors
In India, it is not uncommon to not use toilet paper. Toilets in general have access to water, whether in a bucket
or through a hose, for cleaning purposes after defecation. As a result, the waste bin is not a common element
in toilets either.
Girls
Boys
In most of the schools we visited, the toilets for urinating are outside and open with
full-time access whereas the toilets used for defecating are locked in order to avoid
constant usage and maintain cleanliness. The students need to ask the janitor for the
key whenever they need to use it. Therefore, many students avoid using it so as not to
go through the hassle of finding the janitor, asking for the key then bringing the key
back.
Most of the time the urinating facilities for boys are a simple infrastructure on the open
(a wall or similar) and in case it is inexistent, it is done in the open.
Some of the girls that are on their menstrual cycle avoid coming to school during that
period. Some girls that do attend school during their cycle avoid changing pads all day
until they get home. Others do change the pad in school but make sure to dispose it
away in nature because it is ‘inappropriate’ to dispose it within school territories. The
same applies for the female teachers.
Defecating facilities are almost always shared the by the entire school and in most cases
there is just one.
As for the boys the main issues regarding sanitation are privacy and hygiene. By hygiene
we mean maintenance of the toilet facilities as well as access to personal hygiene goods
(hand soap, water taps).
Many girls avoid using the toilets in school by making sure they use it at home before
leaving and by drinking less fluids during the day. This means an average of 6 hours/day
without urinating.
In the schools with toilets in the open, girls usually go with a friend because they are
scared of monkeys and snakes.
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33. Synthesis
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34. Problems, Needs and Key Success Factors
Problems, Needs and Key Success Factors
Problems Related to Toilet Usage
Problems
Girls
Needs Related to Toilet Usage
Privacy
Girls avoid using locked toilets for defecating to avoid hassle of asking for, bringing and returning keys
Hygiene
Maintenance Security
X
Girls
X
X
Girls need proper / hygienic means for proper disposal of sanitary pads
Girls need to have private and safe individual spaces to go to the toilet
Children need privacy when going to the toilet
Maintenance
X
Security
X
Girls go to toilets in the open with friends because they are scared of animals
X
General
X
Children need access to water for washing hands after using the toilet
X
Girls prefer going home to use the toilet rather than using the facilities at school
Infrastructures lacking enclosed compartments
Girls need to be able to go to the bathroom whenever they feel the need
Hygiene
X
Girls have difficulties in finding where to dispose pads properly while in school
General
Privacy
X
Girls in menstrual cycle have higher level of absenteeism due to lack of proper facilities
Girls feel lack of privacy using toilets at school (open facilities, broken doors...)
Needs
X
Poor maintenance of infrastructure
X
No on-site access to water for flushing
X
X
X
Children cannot wash their hands after using the toilet (hand wash, sink, towels, tissue paper)
X
Toilet facilities are often surrounded by garbage
X
X
Defecating facilities lack of proper ventilation and lighting
X
X
Schools cannot ensure a constant water supply
X
X
Schools do not provide the proper means to keep the toilet facilities clean (brush/broom, disinfectants, garbage bin...)
X
X
Toilet facilities do not have appropriate floor to keep them clean
X
Toilet facilities lack squatting slabs
X
Toilet facilities do not have a proper sewage/water system
Toilet facilities need to be cleaned regularly
X
Toilet infrastructure needs to be properly maintained (doors, tiles, roofs)
X
X
X
X
Closed compartments need proper ventilation and lighting / electricity
X
Schools need to ensure constant water supply
X
Schools need to ensure proper supplies for cleaning / disinfecting toilet facilities
X
Presence of animals and insects within the toilet facilities (monkeys, snakes, worms, flies...)
X
Toilet facilities need to be placed within a clean environment
X
Absence of means for flushing
X
Toilet facilities need to have water for flushing and the means to do so
X
X
X
X
X
X
Schools need to provide potable water and its relevant infrastructure
X
Schools need to provide appropriate toilet infrastructure
X
Schools need to have proper waste water management systems
X
X
* extra commodities: doormat + hangers
** curious information (not problem): the need of a mirror within toilets is important especially for the boys
X
Table 17. The table highlights the main problems encountered by students using toilet facilities in schools and the criteria that best describe the nature of the problem.
Table 18. The table highlights the main needs of students while using toilet facilities in schools and the criteria that best describe the nature of the need.
Key Success Factors
Privacy
Hygiene
Maintenance
Continuous availability to water within school facilities
X
Continuous accessibility to potable and safe drinking water within school facilities
Security
X
Proper toilet facilities and infrastructures within school facilities
X
X
Continuous high level maintenance of toilet facilities within schools
X
X
Accessibility to a safe and hygienic toilet environment within school facilities
X
Proper waste collection and management within school facilities
X
X
Appropriate black water sewage system and management within school facilities
X
X
Table 19. The table highlights the key success factors for improving toilet facilities in schools and the criteria that best describes the nature of the factor.
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35. Opportunity Spaces
Infrastructure &
Maintenance
Water Management
Waste Management
filter and reuse water in rural schools?
create a closed water circuit?
diversify water source?
guarantee good maintenance of the water facilities?
collect rainwater and store it for daily use?
design easily refillable water tanks to be placed near
toilets?
provide schools with on-site waste management systems?
generate awareness on proper disposal of sanitation pads?
design a friendly and hygienic system for sanitation pad
disposal in schools?
remodel the Indian way of waste removal (burning
garbage) in an environmental friendly approach?
make use of local material to build proper toilet
infrastructures?
provide a good-quality low-cost toilet module for rural
schools?
create awareness on the consequences of poor sanitation
in day-to-day life?
motivate and empower people responsible of cleaning and
maintaining toilets?
transform the activity of cleaning toilets to be more fun
and rewarding?
develop the students’ sense of ownership on their school
toilets for better maintenance?
empower students to have a bigger impact on
maintaining cleanliness on school toilets?
establish a network of partners/suppliers of basic hygiene
products (soaps, hand sanitizer, cleaning products…)
to provide to schools?
Personal Hygiene
Safety & Privacy
Network & Community
improve the hygienic experience of girls and boys using
school toilets?
make the concept of hygiene more comprehensible and
accessible to school students?
integrate educational and fun hygiene programs in school
systems?
empower teachers’ role in influencing hygienic procedures
in schools?
make hygienic products more accessible in schools?
provide a safe toilet environment where animals are not
a threat?
ensure privacy of toilet users, especially female users?
design alternatives to traditional locked toilet doors?
enhance schools’ influential role within communities to
create awareness on sanitation?
design a community based savings and financing system
that invests on basic sanitation infrastructure?
design an affordable and efficient public toilet cleaning
service within the community?
The sanitation problems and needs of students identified throughout our research and observation are the foundation
of which solutions must be built on. The key success factors cluster the problems and needs into the major themes
where the opportunities lie.
In order to explore the opportunity spaces for providing solutions to the identified problems, one brainstorming tool
we use is to ask ourselves ‘how might we’ questions. The questions below serve as a trigger to ideate for product,
services or system solutions regarding the sanitation problems in Indian schools.
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36. Projections
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37. Projections
As our desktop research has shown and our field trip has proven, the sanitation problem in India remains
very dominant today. A problem as big as sanitation, governed by politics, bureaucracy and corruption, is
definitely a challenging problem to tackle. An ultimate solution for the interdependent sanitation system
probably requires the collaboration of many different stakeholders and a major reconstruction of the
country’s infrastructure. To reach such a solution might seem overwhelming.
However, as Prof. Yunus advocates in his book Building Social Business, starting small is key and “if your
work has a positive impact on five or ten people, you have invented a seed. Now you can plant it a million
times”. (p.21) We believe that education is an essential starting point and a main channel of penetration
to tackle most social problems. In a country that values education as much as India does, schools have
a fundamental role in influencing healthy habits and environments. By developing new perceptions,
behaviors and habits on hygiene and sanitation in schools, the change of attitude in students would soon
be reflected within whole communities.
Taking into consideration all that we have learned and observed from our desktop and field research,
and going back to the “how might we” questions introduced in our document, a future outlook for this
project would be to ideate on possible and feasible solutions that address the sanitation problem in India,
starting small, starting local and most importantly starting with the users’ point of view.
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38. Bibliography
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»» Erik Simanis and Stuart Hart, The Base of the Pyramid Protocol: Toward Next Generation Bop Strategy
(second addition 2008)
»» Muhammad Yunus, Building Social Business: The New Kind of Capitalism that Serves Humanity´s Most
Pressing Needs (Public Affairs , 2010)
»» Richard J. Boland Jr. and Fred Collopy, Managing as Designing (Stanford Business Books, 2004)
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