Sacrum
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The sacrum is a triangular bone formed by the fusion of five vertebrae. It is located at the upper back part of the pelvic cavity between the two wings of the pelvis. The sacrum articulates with the last lumbar vertebra above, the coccyx below, and the hip bones on either side. It surrounds and protects the spinal nerves and helps form the pelvic cavity to support organs and allow childbirth.
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deals with the anatomy of LS spine coccyx and sacrum. The sacrum and coccyx are two anatomical structures located near the bottom of your vertebral spinal column, below the fifth lumbar vertebra (L5).Below the sacrum is the coccyx, commonly known as the tailbone. The sacrum and coccyx are weight-bearing spinal structures.
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Presentation about femal pelvis for nursing students
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Orders of class osteichthyes
This document summarizes the key characteristics of 18 orders of bony fishes (class Osteichthyes) based on their anatomical features and examples. It describes traits such as fin structure, scale type, presence of swim bladders and their connections to other organs, body shape adaptations, and example fish from each order. The orders discussed include Crossopterygii, Dipnoi, Polypteriformes, Acipenseriformes, and others.
Mammals stomach and dentition
The document discusses the origin and evolution of mammals. It describes two main theories for the ancestry of mammals - descent from amphibians or reptiles. While Huxley proposed an amphibian ancestry, most evidence supports a reptilian ancestry, with mammals evolving from mammal-like reptiles called therapsids. True mammals first appeared in the Jurassic period and were small, nocturnal creatures. After the extinction of dinosaurs, mammals underwent an adaptive radiation, diversifying to fill new ecological niches. Limbs and teeth evolved adaptations for different diets and modes of locomotion like burrowing, swimming and climbing. Distantly related groups sometimes converged on similar forms when occupying similar habitats.
Origin and Evolution of Mammals
The document discusses the origin and evolution of mammals. It describes two main theories for the ancestry of mammals - through amphibians or reptiles. While amphibian ancestry was proposed, reptilian ancestry is now widely accepted based on fossil evidence. Many characteristics of early mammal-like reptiles called therapsids were mammalian. True mammals first appeared in the Jurassic period but remained small until after the extinction of dinosaurs. When ecological niches opened up in the Cenozoic era, mammals underwent adaptive radiations into various forms through modifications of limbs, teeth and other features for different habitats like trees, ground, burrows, water and air. Convergent evolution also led to similarities between unrelated mammals adapting to the same nic
Draco volans
The Draco volans, or flying lizard, has a dorso-ventrally compressed body up to 25cm long with a 12cm tail. It has wing-like patagia membranes between its limbs that it uses for gliding. Males have an orange gular pouch and nuchal crest while females have a blue pouch. It is found in Indonesia and feeds on ants and possibly termites.
Digestive system of vertebrates
1. The document describes the digestive system of vertebrates, including the development and anatomy of key structures like the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver and gallbladder.
2. It notes that the digestive tract develops from the embryonic archenteron and surrounding mesoderm. Structures vary between aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates.
3. Accessory organs like the tongue, teeth and salivary glands are described. The stomach and intestines show diversity between species related to diet. The liver and gallbladder function to produce and store bile.
Common peafowl
1. The document discusses the common peafowl, specifically the Indian peafowl. It describes the classification, appearance, habitat, and distribution of male peacocks and female peahens.
2. Male peacocks have iridescent blue-green plumage and elongated tail feathers called a "train" with eye-like patterns. Females are duller in coloration and lack the elongated tail feathers.
3. Peafowl are found in forests, farmland, bushlands and rainforests, preferring areas with open spaces for displaying and dust bathing. Their historic range was northern India but they are now protected in several national parks and reserves in Nepal.
Brain of vertebrates
The document summarizes the development and comparative anatomy of the vertebrate brain. It describes how the embryonic brain divides into three primary vesicles - the prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon. It then discusses the specific structures that develop from each of these regions across different vertebrate groups, including differences in brain structure between cyclostomes, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Key differences include the size of regions like the cerebrum, cerebellum, and olfactory bulbs across the groups.
Integument
This document discusses the comparative anatomy of the integument and its derivatives in vertebrates. It describes the general structure of skin, which consists of an outer epidermis and inner dermis layers. The epidermis is stratified squamous epithelium that provides protection, while the dermis contains connective tissue, blood vessels, and sensory structures. Major derivatives of the integument discussed include epidermal glands, scales, claws/nails/hooves, horns, feathers, and hair. The integument and its derivatives have evolved to suit the environment and provide functions like protection, thermoregulation, sensation, and identification.
Water
Water is essential for life and exists in three states: liquid, solid, and gas. It has unique properties like being a universal solvent and exhibiting surface tension due to hydrogen bonding between molecules. Water is used for many important purposes including household use, agriculture, industry, recreation, hydropower, and more. As the global population increases, proper management of water resources and conservation efforts will be needed to ensure adequate fresh water supplies for the future.
Translation
Translation is the process by which the genetic code in mRNA is used to direct the synthesis of proteins. It involves three main steps - initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation requires the small and large ribosomal subunits to assemble around an mRNA molecule along with initiator tRNA and other initiation factors. Elongation then adds amino acids one by one to the growing polypeptide chain according to the mRNA codons. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached, causing the ribosome to dissociate and release the complete protein.
The structure of dna and genome ogranization
The document discusses the structure of DNA and genome organization. It describes that DNA is usually composed of two polynucleotide chains twisted around each other in a double helix structure. The backbone of each strand is made up of alternating sugar and phosphate residues, while the bases project inward. The two strands are linked by hydrogen bonds between complementary bases, with adenine pairing with thymine and guanine pairing with cytosine. Together, the sugar, phosphate, and base components make up the nucleotides that serve as the fundamental building blocks of DNA.
Plasmodium
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Comparative study of vertebrates
The document describes the development and anatomy of the human eye and compares it to eyes in other organisms. It discusses that in the third week of human development, optic vesicles form and later develop into the optic cup, which will become the retina. By week six, tissues surrounding the eye differentiate into the sclera and choroid. The document then compares key features of eyes across vertebrate groups like fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
The nucleic acids
Friedrich Miescher first isolated nucleic acids in 1869 and called them "nuclein" due to their acidic properties. The discovery of DNA's double helix structure in 1953 by Watson and Crick was monumental. Nucleic acids function to store and transmit genetic information through DNA and RNA. DNA is made of two strands bound together by complementary nucleotide bases, with adenine pairing with thymine and guanine pairing with cytosine. The discovery of DNA's structure explained the mechanism of heredity.
Honey bee
This document provides information about honey bees. It begins with the classification of honey bees, then discusses their social behavior and advantages. It provides examples of social insects including honey bees, wasps, termites and ants. The document focuses on honey bees, describing their appearance, distribution, and the different types of bees within a hive: the queen, workers, and drones. It explains the key roles and characteristics of each type of honey bee.
Genetic engineering of humans
This document discusses genetic engineering of humans through various methods such as germline genetic modification and somatic genetic modification. It notes both the promising applications for improving health through gene therapy but also the ethical concerns regarding enhancing traits and the possibility of genetic inequality. Specific examples discussed include using CRISPR to genetically modify human embryos to potentially treat disease as well as concerns about "designer babies". The document examines issues around testing for non-disease traits, gene doping in athletes, and the potential benefits and risks of human gene editing technologies.
Hazards of genetic engineering
Genetic engineering and genetically modified organisms have potential risks and downsides according to the document. While genetic engineering has applications in agriculture and medicine, it can also have detrimental effects on humanity. Introducing foreign genes into other species can have uncontrolled and unpredictable consequences. Studies have shown genetically modified foods can be toxic and cause health issues in animals. Genetically engineered crops also have negative impacts on biodiversity and the environment by promoting the growth of pesticide-resistant superweeds and superbugs. The long-term effects of genetic engineering are uncertain due to its new and crude nature, making it a controversial technology that manipulates nature in ways bypassing normal evolution.
Azotobacter spp.
The document describes isolating and identifying Azotobacter species from a soil sample. It discusses enriching the soil in Ashby's Mannitol Broth for a week to activate nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Colonies were then streaked on the broth and incubated for 4-6 days. Gram staining identified gram-negative cells with a red color and capsule staining showed transparent capsules around violet cells, indicating motility. The colonies were creamy white, raised, circular and mucoid, consistent with Azotobacter.
Biological membrane
The document summarizes the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane. It describes the main components of the membrane - phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates. The phospholipid bilayer forms the main structure of the membrane, with phospholipids arranged in two layers with their hydrophobic tails facing each other and hydrophilic heads facing outwards. Proteins embedded within or attached to the membrane carry out important functions like transport and cell signaling. Carbohydrates attached to proteins and lipids on the outer surface of the membrane help with cell recognition. The fluid nature of the membrane allows it to maintain selective permeability and flexibility. Passive and active transport mechanisms allow movement of substances across the membrane.
Atomic radius
1) Atomic radius is the distance from the nucleus to the outermost shell of electrons or the point where electron density is highest.
2) There are three types of atomic radii: covalent, van der Waals, and metallic.
3) Covalent radius is half the distance between bonded atoms. Van der Waals radius is half the distance between adjacent non-bonded atoms. Metallic radius is half the distance between metal ions in a lattice.
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Acne is a common skin condition that occurs when hair follicles become clogged with oil and dead skin cells. It typically manifests as pimples, blackheads, or whiteheads, often on the face, chest, shoulders, or back. Acne can range from mild to severe and may cause emotional distress and scarring in some cases.
**Causes:**
1. **Excess Oil Production:** Hormonal changes during adolescence or certain times in adulthood can increase sebum (oil) production, leading to clogged pores.
2. **Clogged Pores:** When dead skin cells and oil block hair follicles, bacteria (usually Propionibacterium acnes) can thrive, causing inflammation and acne lesions.
3. **Hormonal Factors:** Fluctuations in hormone levels, such as during puberty, menstrual cycles, pregnancy, or certain medical conditions, can contribute to acne.
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- **Nodules:** Large, solid, painful lumps beneath the surface.
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Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
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Sacrum
- 1. Sacrum By- Sanju Sah St. Xavier’s college, Maitighar, Kathmandu Department of Microbiology
- 2. • The word sacrum comes from Latin word sacer, meaning sacred or strong. • It is a single bone formed by incomplete fusion of five vertebrae to form triangular or wedged-shaped bone with a concave anterior surface. Location: • It is situated at the upper, back part of pelvic cavity, between two wings of pelvis.
- 3. Anatomy • The sacrum is a kyphotic bone, that is, it is concave in shape, facing outwards and forwards. • There lies an inter-vertebral disc between the base of the last lumbar vertebra and the sacrum, which is known as the lumbosacral disc.
- 4. • The canal for the passage of the spinal cord extends into the sacrum. • The sacral nerves exit through the bony foramina, which are present along the outer borders of the sacrum. • If these nerves get pressed due to dislocation or any other injury, then it can lead to intense pain in that area, among other symptoms.
- 6. Articulations The sacrum articulates with four bones: • the last lumbar vertebra above • the coccyx (tailbone) below • the illium portion of the hip bone on either side.
- 7. Function • Several key muscles of the hip joint, including the gluteus maximus, iliacus, and piriformis, have their origins on the surface of the sacrum and pull on the sacrum to move the leg. • The sacrum also surrounds and protects the spinal nerves of the lower back.
- 8. • Finally, the sacrum helps to form the pelvic cavity that supports and protects the delicate organs of the abdominopelvic cavity and provides space for a fetus to pass through during childbirth.
- 9. References • Gray H: Anatomy of the Human Body. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1918; Bartleby.com, 2000 www.bartleby.com/107/ [July 18, 2003] 9. • Rose and wilson, Anatomy and Physiology, 11th edition, Reprinted in 2011 , Pp: 393.