The upper limb can be divided into 7 regions: scapular, pectoral, axilla, arm, elbow, forearm, and hand. Key bones of the upper limb include the clavicle, scapula, and humerus which make up the pectoral girdle. The scapula is a flat triangular bone with processes. The humerus has a head, greater and lesser tubercles proximally and a condyle distally. The radius and ulna make up the forearm with the ulna being the longer bone. The hand has 27 bones organized into carpal, metacarpal and phalanges.

1. GROSS ANATOMY
UPPER AND LOWER LIMBS
1

2. INTRODUCTION
• Anatomy is a descriptive science and
• requires names for the many structures and processes of the
• body. All anatomical descriptions are expressed in relation to one
• consistent position, ensuring that descriptions are not ambiguous
• The anatomical position refers to the body position
• as if the person were standing upright with the:
• • head, gaze (eyes), and toes directed anteriorly (forward),
• • arms adjacent to the sides with the palms facing anteriorly,
• And lower limbs close together with the feet parallel
• Anatomical Planes
• Anatomical descriptions are based on imaginary planes
• Sagittal planes
2

3. • Frontal (coronal) planes
• Transverse planes
• Terms of Relationship and Comparison
• Various adjectives, arranged as pairs of
opposites, describe
3

4. • Superior refers to a structure that is nearer the vertex
• Posterior (dorsal) denotes the back surface of the body or
nearer to the back.
• Medial is used to indicate that a structure is nearer to the
median plane of the body.
• Proximal and distal are used when contrasting positions
nearer to or farther from the attachment of a limb or the
central aspect of a linear structure,
4

5. • Superficial, intermediate, and deep describe the position of
structures relative to the surface of the body or the
relationship of one structure to another underlying or
overlying structure.
5

6. Terms of Movement
• Various terms describe movements of the limbs and other parts of the body
• Flexion indicates bending or decreasing the angle between the bones or
parts of the body.
• Extension indicates straightening or increasing the angle between the bones
or parts of the body.
• abduction means moving away from the median plane
• adduction means moving toward it.
• Protrusion is a movement anteriorly (forward) as in protruding
• the mandible (chin), lips, or tongue
• Retrusion
• is a movement posteriorly (backward), as in retruding the
• mandible, lips, or tongue.
• protraction and
• retraction are used most commonly for anterolateral and posteromedial
• movements of the scapula on the thoracic wall,
6

7. • Elevation raises or moves a part superiorly, as in elevating
the shoulders when shrugging,
• Depression lowers or moves a part inferiorly, as in
depressing the shoulders when standing at ease, the upper
eyelid when closing the eye, or pulling the tongue away
from the palate.
7

8. Bone markings appear wherever tendons, ligaments, and
fascias are attached or where arteries lie adjacent to or enter
bones.
Other formations occur in relation to the passage of a tendon
(often to direct the tendon or improve its leverage) or to
control the type of movement occurring at a joint.
Some of the various markings and features of bones are
• Capitulum: small, round, articular head (e.g., the capitulum
of the humerus).
• Condyle: rounded, knuckle-like articular area, often
occurring in pairs (e.g., the lateral and medial femoral
condyles).
8

9. Crest: ridge of bone (e.g., the iliac crest).
• Epicondyle: eminence superior to a condyle (e.g., the lateral
epicondyle of the humerus).
• Facet: smooth flat area, usually covered with cartilage,
where a bone articulates with another bone (e.g., the superior
costal
facet on the body of a vertebra for articulation with a rib).
• Foramen: passage through a bone (e.g., the obturator
foramen).
• Fossa: hollow or depressed area (e.g., the infraspinous fossa
of the scapula).
• Groove: elongated depression or furrow (e.g., the radial
groove of the humerus).
• Head (L. caput): large, round articular end (e.g., the head
of the humerus).
9

10. Line: linear elevation (e.g., the soleal line of the tibia).
• Malleolus: rounded process (e.g., the lateral malleolus of the fibula).
• Notch: indentation at the edge of a bone (e.g., the greater
sciatic notch).
• Protuberance: projection of bone (e.g., the external occipital
protuberance).
• Spine: thorn-like process (e.g., the spine of the scapula).
• Spinous process: projecting spine-like part (e.g., the spinous process
of a vertebra).
• Trochanter: large blunt elevation (e.g., the greater trochanter of the
femur).
• Trochlea: spool-like articular process or process that acts as a pulley
(e.g., the trochlea of the humerus).
10

11. Tubercle: small raised eminence (e.g., the greater tubercle
of the humerus).
• Tuberosity: large rounded elevation (e.g., the ischial
tuberosity).
11

12. UPPER LIMB
• The upper limb is characterized by its mobility and ability to
grasp, strike, and conduct fine motor skills (manipulation).
• These characteristics are especially marked in the hand when
performing manual activities such as buttoning a shirt.
• Parts (Regions) of the Upper Limb
• The upper limb may be described as consisting of the following
major parts:
1. Scapular and pectoral regions;
2. Axilla;
3. Arm (brachium);
4. Elbow;
5. Forearm (or antebrachium);
6. Wrist; and
7. Hand
12

13. • Scapular and Pectoral Regions of the Upper Limb
• Note the following points:
• The scapular region overlies the thorax posteriorly;
• The pectoral region overlies the thorax anteriorly,
• The pectoral girdle is the incomplete bony ring of the
scapular/pectoral regions that articulates with the bones
of the arms (humerus).
• The Pectoral Girdle
• The following are the bones of the pectoral girdle:
• Paired scapulae, located in the scapular regions;
• Paired clavicles, located in the pectoral regions;
• Unpaired (median) manubrium sterni, which articulates
with the clavicles at the sternoclavicular joints.
• Scapula
13

14. • The Scapula
• Is a flat triangular bone located
in the superolateral part of the
dorsal surface of the thorax; it
overlies the 2nd to 7th ribs
(dorsally)
• Has two surfaces: posterior and
costal surfaces
• Has three borders: superior,
medial and lateral borders
• Has three angles: lateral,
superior and inferior angles;
• Has three bony projections:
coracoid process, acromial
process and spinous process
• Gives attachment to fifteen
muscles. Thus, it is largely non-
palpable.
14

15. • Surfaces of the Scapula
• These include: Costal surface; and Dorsal surface
• The costal surface of the scapula
• Is the concave surface that overlies the 2nd – 7th ribs
(dorsally);
• Is deepened by the presence of the subscapular fossa;
• The dorsal surface of scapula
• Has a spine that is placed obliquely across it, closer to its
upper border than to its lower end. This divides the dorsal
surface into a smaller upper supraspinous fossa and a
larger lower infraspinous fossa
• Has a great scapular (spinoglenoid) notch between the
spine and the posterior surface of the ‘neck’ of the
scapula. This notch transmits neurovascular structures
from supraspinous to the infraspinous fossa.
• There are 3 processes in the scapula:
• Spinous process, Acromial process, and Coracoid process
15

16. • Applied Anatomy of the Scapula
• Note the following points:
• The scapula is less frequently involved in fracture
owing to the fact that it is surrounded by muscles.
However, the acromion, being subcutaneous, is
prone to fracture
16

17. • Clavicle
• Is roughly S-shaped. It is the bone that connects the upper limb
to the trunk (as it stretches between the manubrium sterni and
the acromion)
• Helps to strut (support) the shoulder
• Has two ends: a sternal end, which articulates with the
manubrium sterni at the sternoclavicular joint, and an acromial
end, which articulates with the acromion at the
acromioclavicular joint
• Has a sinuous shaft (body), which is convex anteriorly in its
medial ⅔ and concave anteriorly in its lateral ⅓. Thus, its S-
shaped outline
• Is largely subcutaneous. Thus, its outline can be seen and
readily palpated Bears certain surface features that include the
following: conoid tubercle, subclavian groove, impression for
costoclavicular ligament and trapezoid line
• Appears shorter, smoother, less curved and thinner in females,
with the acromial end being a little lower than its sternal end Is
stronger and usually shorter on the right than the left side
17

18. • The medial ⅔ of the clavicle
• Is convex forwards
• Bears an impression for the
costoclavicular ligament on the
medial part of its inferior surface.
This gives attachment to the
costoclavicular ligament
• Possesses a subclavian groove,
just lateral to the impression for
the costoclavicular ligament, on
the inferior surface of the clavicle.
This gives attachment to the to the
subclavius
• Has a nutrient foramen, which is
located in the lateral part of the
subclavian groove, and the opening
of which is directed laterally
18

19. The lateral ⅓ of the clavicle
 Is concave forwards
 May bear a deltoid tubercle on
its anterior border. This gives
attachment to the deltoid
 Bears a conoid tubercle on its
inferior surface. This gives
attachment to the conoid
ligament (medial part of the
strong coracoclavicular
ligament)
 Also bears a trapezoid line, just
lateral to the conoid tubercle.
This gives attachment to the
trapezoid ligament (lateral part
of coracoclavicular ligament)
19

20. Applied Anatomy of the Clavicle
Note the following points:
 The clavicle is commonly
involved in fracture; this
usually occurs at the junction
of its lateral ⅓ and medial ⅔
 Drooping (sagging) of the
affected upper limb occurs
following fracture of the
clavicle
 Fracture of the clavicle occurs
more frequently in children
than in adults. In the former, it
is often incomplete and of the
greenstick type. 20

21. • Humerus
• The humerus
• Is the only bone of the arm
• Has a proximal end, a shaft,
and a distal end.
• The proximal end of the
humerus consists of:
• A hemispherical head (for
glenohumeral articulation)
• An anatomical neck (which
circumscribes and separates
the head from the tubercles)
• Two tubercles: greater and
lesser tubercles (for muscular
attachment)
21

22. • The distal end of the humerus
• Is the condyle of the humerus;
it lies distal to humeral shaft Is
widened transversely, such
that it has anterior and
posterior surfaces
22

23. • Has an articular and a non-
articular part. The former
consists of the capitulum and
trochlea; while the latter
consists of the medial and
lateral epicondyles, olecranon
fossa, radial fossa and coronoid
fossa
• Articulates with the ulna and
radius at the elbow joint, via its
articular part (capitulum and
trochlea)
23

24. Applied Anatomy of the Humerus
 The surgical neck of the humerus is more
frequently involved in fracture, especially in the
elderly, who suffer from osteoporosis
 In fracture of humeral surgical neck, the axillary
nerve is at risk. Injury to the axillary nerve will
produce paralysis of deltoid and teres minor, and
anaesthesia of the skin over the lower part of
deltoid
24

25. Applied Anatomy of the Humerus
 In mid-shaft fracture of the humerus, the radial
nerve is at risk. Injury to this nerve will result in
wrist drop (owing to paralysis of extensor muscles
of the forearm)
 The nerve to the long head of triceps is spared
when the radial nerve is injured in the arm. Thus,
this head of triceps is not paralysed
25

26.  Fracture of the medial epicondyle of the humerus may injure the
ulnar nerve (which lies in a groove behind this epicondyle)
 Because the medial epicondyle fuses with humeral shaft at a later
time than the lateral epicondyle, radiological examination of the
distal end of the humerus may result in a wrong diagnosis of
fracture of this bone
 The median nerve is also at risk in fracture of the distal part of
the humerus
 During a fall on the point of the shoulder, avulsion fracture of the
greater tubercle of the humerus may occur, especially in the
elderly
 Following amputation of the arm in young subjects, the proximal
humeral stump continues to grow because longitudinal growth of
the humerus is largely a function of the proximal growth cartilage.
26

27. • Bones of the Forearm
• Bones of the forearm include
radius and ulna; these lie parallel
to one another when the forearm
is supinated, with the ulna being
medial to the radius.
• Radius
• Regarding the radius, note the
following facts:
• The radius is the shorter of the
forearm bones. It lies lateral to
the ulna, and has a proximal end,
a body and a distal end
• The proximal end of the radius
consists of a head, a neck and a
radial tuberosity
27

28. • Ulna
• The ulna
• Is the longer of the two bones of
the forearm. It lies medial to the
radius
• Is relatively fixed during supination-
pronation movement (when radius
moves across the ulna)
• Has a proximal end, a body and a
distal end (head)
• Anatomical features at the proximal
end of the ulna include:
• Olecranon, which gives attachment
to the tendon of triceps,
• Coronoid process, which gives
attachment to brachialis,
28

29. • Trochlea notch, which
articulates with humeral
trochlea (at the humero-ulnar
joint)
• Radial notch, which
articulates with the
circumference of the head of
radius (at the proximal radio-
ulnar joint)
• Tuberosity of ulna; this gives
attachment to the tendon of
insertion of brachialis;
• Supinator crest, for the
attachment of supinator
29

30. • Supinator fossa, also for the
attachment of supinator.
• A heavy blow on the forearm may
result in fracture of the
intermediate portion of the radius
and/or ulna. The radio-ulnar joints
may also be dislocated
• Colle’s fracture – fracture of the
distal end of radius – is the
commonest fracture of the forearm,
especially in (female) subjects
beyond 50 years of age (owing to
osteoporosis, etc)
• Healing of Colle’s fracture is usually
satisfactory owing to the rich blood
supply of the radius.
30

31. • Hand (Manus)
• Regarding the hand, note the following:
• The forearm and the hand are joined at the
wrist (carpus)
• The hand has 27 bones; these are arranged
as follows:
• 8 bones in the carpus (wrist)
• 5 bones in the metacarpus (hand proper)
• 14 bones in the digits
• The carpus contains 8 carpal bones, flexor
retinaculum, extensor retinaculum,
anatomical snuff box and the carpal tunnel
• The hand proper consists of 5 metacarpal
bones and the compartments and spaces of
the hand
• Each digit has three phalanges (bones),
except the first digit (thumb), which has two
phalanges
• The hand is highly adapted for skilled and
selective movements.
31

32. • Axilla
• The axilla
• Is the pyramidal region between the
upper part of the lateral wall of the
thorax and the arm. It deepens when
the arm is by the side but almost
disappears when the arm is abducted
• Has an apex, a base, and four walls
(anterior, posterior, lateral and medial
walls)
• Allows the passage of vessels and
nerves between the neck/thoracic
cavity and the arm. The axilla
contains axillary vessels,
infraclavicular part of the brachial
plexus (of nerve), lymph nodes and
adipose tissue
• Boundaries of the Axilla
• Anterior Wall of the Axilla
• The anterior wall of the axilla
• Extends from the clavicle above to the
anterior axillary fold below 32

33. • Is formed by pectorales
major and minor, subclavius
and clavipectoral fascia (see
below).
• The clavipectoral fascia
• Is a fascial sheet that
stretches from the clavicle
above to the axillary fascia
below, in the anterior wall of
the axilla. Between these
attachment sites, it splits to
enclose subclavius and
pectoralis minor
• Is pierced by thoraco-
acromial artery, cephalic
vein and lymph vessels, just
above the medial border of
pectoralis minor 33

34. • Posterior Wall of the
Axilla
• The posterior wall of the
axilla
• Is formed above by
subscapularis and its
fascia; and below by teres
major and latissimus
dorsi. The latter winds
round the inferior border
of teres major, from
posterior anteriorly, and
together they form the
posterior axillary fold.
34

35. • Posterior Wall of the
Axilla
• Medial Wall of the
Axilla
• The medial wall of the
axilla
• Is formed by the upper
four ribs and their
associated intercostal
muscles, and the
upper part of serratus
anterior
• Is convex from anterior
posteriorly.
35

36. • Lateral Wall
• The lateral ‘wall’ of the axilla
• Is formed by the intertubercular groove of
the humerus, and the coracobrachialis,
which overlies it
• Is extremely narrow (as anterior and
posterior axillary walls converge towards
it)
• Base of the Axilla
• The base of the axilla
• Is formed by skin, subcutaneous tissue and
axillary fascia. The latter stretches
between the inferior borders of pectoralis
major and latissimus dorsi;
• Has a convexity that faces the axilla, and a
concavity that corresponds to the armpit
• Is broadens towards the medial wall of the
axilla but narrows towards the lateral wall
36

37. • Apex of the Axilla
• Is truncated and directed superomedially,
towards the root of the neck
• Is bounded by the external border of the
first rib medially, upper border of
subscapularis (and scapula) posteriorly,
and the clavicle anteriorly
• Is linked to the root of the neck by the
cervico-axillary canal. This canal transmits
neurovascular structures between the
axilla and the neck
• Contents of the Axilla
• The axilla contains the following:
• Axillary artery and its branches
• Axillary vein and its tributaries
• Infraclavicular part of the brachial plexus
• Lymph vessels and five groups of lymph
nodes
• Adipose Tissue (between the above
structures)
37

38. • The axillary artery
• Is the direct continuation of
the subclavian artery. It
commences at the outer
border of the 1st rib and
ends at the lower border of
teres major; here, it
becomes the brachial
artery
• Lies close to the humerus;
and is related medially to
the axillary vein
• Is described as consisting
of three parts (first, second
and third parts), in relation
to pectoralis minor
• Is intimately related to the
infraclavicular part of
brachial plexus
38

39. • Aneurysm of axillary artery may occur. This causes
compression of parts of the brachial plexus, with the
resultant anaesthesia of the skin supplied by such
nerves
• To control bleeding in the upper limb, the axillary artery
(especially its 3rd part) may be compressed against the
humerus.
• In stenosis of the axillary artery, blood cannot reach the
distal part of this vessel except through collateral
channels provided by the arterial anastomoses around
the scapula (see below)
• Accidental laceration of the axillary artery may occur,
the frequency being higher when the vessel is diseased
39

40. Brachial Plexus
The brachial plexus is the
network of nerves that
supplies the skin, muscles
and joints of the upper limb. It
extends laterally and
downwards from the lower
part of the neck, passing
behind the clavicle, to enter
the axilla.
40

41. • The brachial plexus
• Is a network of nerves that
innervates the upper limb
• Has five roots commonly
formed by ventral rami of
C5, C6, C7, C8 and T1
spinal nerves.
• Is defined as having a
superomedial
supraclavicular part,
which lies above the
clavicle, in the posterior
triangle of the neck; and
an inferolateral
infraclavicular part, which
lies below the clavicle, in
the axilla
41

42. • The brachial plexus
• Consists of the roots,
trunks, divisions, cords
and branches, from
medial laterally
• Supraclavicular part of
the brachial plexus
• Is the part that lies above
and medial to the
clavicle, in the lower part
of the neck (posterior
triangle). It joins the
infraclavicular part of the
plexus behind the
clavicle
• Comprises the roots and
trunks of the brachial
plexus
42

43. • Infraclavicular part of the brachial plexus
• Is the part that lies below and lateral to the clavicle, in
the axilla
• Consists of cords of the brachial plexus and the
branches that arise from these cords (in the axilla)
• Branches of the Roots of the Brachial Plexus
• Nerves that arise from the roots of the brachial plexus
include:
• Dorsal scapular nerve (C5)
• Long thoracic nerve (C5, C6, C7)
43

44. • Cords of the Brachial Plexus
• The cords of the brachial plexus
• Arise from the union of the divisions of the brachial plexus. They are
designated as medial, lateral and posterior cords
• Are all located in the axilla, in close relation to the axillary vessels
• Are arranged around the 2nd part of axillary artery according to their
names; i.e., the lateral cord is lateral to axillary artery (Fig. 83)
• Give rise to several branches. These bear a similar relationship to the
(3rd part of) axillary artery as the cord from which they arise (except
the medial root of median nerve) (Fig. 83). That is, branches arising
from the lateral cord lie lateral to the axillary artery.
44

45. • Applied Anatomy of the Brachial Plexus
• Note the following facts:
• In a postfixed type of brachial plexus (see above), the inferior trunk
may be compressed by the first rib. This produces certain
neurological deficits
• Brachial block (anaesthesia of the larger part of the upper limb) can
be effected by injecting an anaesthetic into the angle between the
clavicle and the posterior border of sternocleidomastoid
• Erb-Duchenne palsy involves injury to the C5/C6 nerve roots or upper
trunk of the plexus. In this palsy, the arm hangs loosely at the side,
with the forearm pronated, while the elbow is extended (‘waiter’s tip
position’). This is due to paralysis of deltoid, biceps brachii,
brachialis and brachioradialis; anaesthesia of lateral aspect of the
limb also occurs
• In Klumpke’s palsy, the C8/T1 nerve roots (or lower trunk) of the
brachial plexus are injured. This produces paralysis of the muscles
of the forearm and hand, resulting in clawhand. Cervical sympathetic
nerves are also involved, resulting in pupillary disturbances
• Erb-Duchenne palsy has a higher frequency than Klumpke’s palsy
45

46. • Muscles of the Pectoral
Region
• (Anterior Thoraco-
Appendicular Muscles)
• Anterior thoraco-
appendicular muscles
include the following:
• Pectorales major and
minor
• Serratus anterior and
• Subclavius
46

47. 47

48. • Posterior Thoracoappendicular Muscles
• The posterior thoracoappendicular muscles
• Are much more numerous than the anterior
thoracoappendicular muscles.
• Include some muscles of the back, which are attached to
the scapula and thorax
• May be divided into three groups:
• Superficial posterior thoracoappendicular muscles
• Deep posterior thoracoappendicular muscles , and
• Scapulohumeral muscles (Scapular muscles)
• Superficial Posterior Thoracoappendicular Muscles
• These include:
• Trapezius and
• Latissimus dorsi
48

49. • The deep thoracoappendicular muscles
• Lie deep to the superficial
thoracoappendicular muscles. They connect
the pectoral girdle (scapula) with the
thoracic wall
• Play major roles in the stability and rotation
of the scapula
• Include levator scapulae, rhomboid major
and rhomboid minorScapulohumeral muscles
• Connect the scapula to the humerus; they
are relatively short muscles
• Closely surround and act on the shoulder
joint
• Scapulohumeral muscles are six; they
include:
• Deltoid and subscapularis
• Teres major and teres minor
• Supraspinatus and infraspinatus.
49

50. • The anterior compartment of the arm
• Lies anterior to the humerus and the medial and lateral intermuscular
septa. These separate it from posterior compartment
• Contains three flexor muscles, blood vessels and nerves.
• Muscles of the Anterior Compartment of the Arm
• Muscles of the anterior compartment of the arm include:
• Biceps brachii
• Brachialis; and
• Coracobrachialis
• Posterior Compartment of the Arm
• This compartment contains:
• Triceps brachii; and
• Certain vessels and nerves, including profunda brachii vessels and radial
nerve.
50

51. • The forearm
• Is the region of the upper limb between the elbow
proximally and the wrist distally
• Has two long bones: the ulna (medially) and the
radius (laterally)
• Is divided into a flexor compartment (anteriorly)
and an extensor compartment (posteriorly)
• Contains several muscles, nerves (ulnar, median
and [branches of] radial nerves) and blood vessels.
51

52. • The cubital fossa
• Is a triangular intermuscular depression located anterior to the elbow joint
• Contains large arteries and nerves, which enter the forearm from the arm.
• Boundaries of the Cubital Fossa
• The cubital fossa is bounded by the following:
• Medial border: lateral border of pronator teres
• Lateral border: medial border of brachioradialis
• Base: interepicondylar line (an imaginary line that joins the two humeral
epicondyles)
• Floor: supinator and brachialis
• Roof: bicipital aponeurosis, deep and superficial fasciae, and skin.
• Contents of the Cubital Fossa
• The cubital fossa contains the following:
• A tendon: bicipital tendon
• Two nerves: median and radial nerves
• Three arteries: brachial, radial and ulnar arteries
• Three paired veins: brachial, radial and ulnar veins. 52

53. • Contents of the Cubital Fossa
• The cubital fossa contains the following:
• A tendon: bicipital tendon
• nerve: median
• Three arteries: brachial, radial and ulnar arteries
• Three paired veins: brachial, radial and ulnar veins.
• In the cubital fossa, note that
• Only segments (parts) of the above structures are present
• The bicipital tendon is lateral while the median nerve is medial to the brachial
artery. Thus, the brachial artery is intermediate in position (between bicipital
tendon laterally and median nerve medially)
• The brachial artery divides (anteromedial to the neck of the radius) into radial
and ulnar arteries
• The radial nerve is concealed between supinator and brachioradialis (in the
lateral aspect of the fossa).
53

54. • Flexor (Anterior) Compartment of the Forearm
• The flexor compartment of the forearm
• Occupies the ventral aspect of the forearm. It contains the
flexors and pronators of the forearm. These muscles are
arranged into two groups: superficial and deep
• Is separated from the extensor compartment by ulna and
radius and the interosseous membrane between them
• Also contains nerves (ulna and median nerves) and the ulnar
and radial vessels.
• Muscles of the Flexor Compartment of the Forearm (Fig. 88,
89)
• Muscles of flexor compartment of forearm
• Largely arise from the medial epicondyle of the humerus; and
some of them extend into the hand
• Are arranged into superficial and deep groups. These muscles
are innervated by the ulnar and median nerves.
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55. • Superficial Group of Forearm Flexor Muscles
• This group contains five muscles. They include:
• Pronator teres and flexor carpi radialis;
• Palmaris longus and flexor carpi ulnaris; and
• Flexor digitorum superficialis.
• Deep Group of Flexor Muscles of the Forearm
• Muscles of this group include:
• Flexor digitorum profundus
• Flexor pollicis longus; and
• Pronator quadratus.
55

56. • Superficial Group of the Extensor Compartment (Fig.
89)
• Muscles of the superficial group of the extensor
compartment are seven; they include:
• Brachioradialis
• Extensor carpi radialis longus
• Extensor carpi radialis brevis
• Extensor carpi ulnaris
• Extensor digitorum
• Extensor digiti minimi; and
• Anconeus.
56

57. • Deep Group of Extensor Compartment Muscles (Fig.
89)
• Muscles of the deep group of extensor
compartment are five; they include:
• Supinator
• Abductor pollicis longus
• Extensor pollicis longus
• Extensor pollicis brevis; and
• Extensor indicis
57

58. • The forearm
• Is the region of the upper limb between the elbow
proximally and the wrist distally
• Has two long bones: the ulna (medially) and the
radius (laterally)
• Is divided into a flexor compartment (anteriorly) and
an extensor compartment (posteriorly)
• Contains several muscles, nerves (ulnar, median and
[branches of] radial nerves) and blood vessels.
58

59. • Flexor (Anterior) Compartment of the Forearm
• The flexor compartment of the forearm
• Occupies the ventral aspect of the forearm. It contains the
flexors and pronators of the forearm. These muscles are
arranged into two groups: superficial and deep
• Is separated from the extensor compartment by ulna and
radius and the interosseous membrane between them
• Also contains nerves (ulna and median nerves) and the ulnar
and radial vessels.
• Muscles of the Flexor Compartment of the Forearm
• Muscles of flexor compartment of forearm
• Largely arise from the medial epicondyle of the humerus; and
some of them extend into the hand
• Are arranged into superficial and deep groups. These muscles
are innervated by the ulnar and median nerves.
59

60. • Superficial Group of Forearm Flexor Muscles
• This group contains five muscles. They include:
• Pronator teres and flexor carpi radialis;
• Palmaris longus and flexor carpi ulnaris; and
• Flexor digitorum superficialis.
• Deep Group of Flexor Muscles of the Forearm
• Muscles of this group include:
• Flexor digitorum profundus
• Flexor pollicis longus; and
• Pronator quadratus.
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61. • Extensor (Posterior) Compartment of the Forearm
• Muscles of the extensor compartment of the forearm
• Include those muscles that extend the wrist and digits; abduct the thumb; and
supinate the forearm. They are all innervated by the radial nerve
• Are also arranged into superficial and deep groups (as do those of the flexor
compartment)
• Superficial Group of the Extensor Compartment
• Muscles of the superficial group of the extensor compartment are seven; they
include:
• Brachioradialis
• Extensor carpi radialis longus
• Extensor carpi radialis brevis
• Extensor carpi ulnaris
• Extensor digitorum
• Extensor digiti minimi; and
• Anconeus.
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62. • Deep Group of Extensor Compartment Muscles
• Muscles of the deep group of extensor compartment are five; they
include:
• Supinator
• Abductor pollicis longus
• Extensor pollicis longus
• Extensor pollicis brevis; and
• Extensor indicis
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