Respiratory
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The document provides an overview of the respiratory system, including its main functions, organs, anatomy, and physiology. It describes the pathways of air from the nose to the alveoli in the lungs where gas exchange occurs. Key topics covered include ventilation, gas transport, and the neural and chemical regulation of breathing. Common respiratory disorders such as COPD, lung cancer, and asthma are also summarized.
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respiratory system anatomy and physiology by Dr.niveditha
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The document discusses the key aspects of pharmacokinetics including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs in the body. It describes how drugs are absorbed via mechanisms like passive diffusion, active transport, and endocytosis. Factors like molecular weight, concentration gradients, and membrane permeability influence absorption rates. Most drug absorption occurs in the small intestine. Distribution of drugs depends on blood flow, ability to cross membranes, and plasma protein binding. The liver plays a major role in drug metabolism through phase I and phase II reactions, converting lipophilic drugs into more polar and water-soluble compounds that can be excreted.
Bacteriology physiology
The document discusses bacterial physiology and growth. It covers the following key points:
1) Bacteria require nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus for growth. They also require growth factors and microelements.
2) Environmental factors that affect bacterial growth include temperature, pH, oxygen availability, and water availability.
3) Bacteria are commonly grown in the laboratory using solid or liquid culture media, which must be sterilized to obtain a pure culture and prevent contamination.
4) The bacterial growth curve consists of four phases: lag, log (exponential), stationary, and death phases. The bacteria acclimate, multiply rapidly, stop growing due to lack of nutrients,
Bacteriology physiology 1-mbbs-y2-5-oct2011---2
The document discusses bacterial physiology and growth. It covers the following key points:
1) Bacteria require nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus for growth. They also require growth factors and microelements.
2) Environmental factors that affect bacterial growth include temperature, pH, oxygen availability, and water availability.
3) Bacteria are commonly grown in the laboratory using solid or liquid culture media, which must be sterilized to obtain a pure culture and prevent contamination.
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Bacteriology physiology 1-mbbs-y2-5-oct2011---2
The document discusses bacterial physiology and growth. It covers the following key points:
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2) Environmental factors that affect bacterial growth include temperature, pH, oxygen availability, and water availability.
3) Bacteria are commonly grown in the laboratory using solid or liquid culture media, which must be sterilized to obtain a pure culture and prevent contamination.
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Physiology syallabus
The physiology exam consists of two theory papers and two practical sessions. Theory Paper 1 covers general physiology, blood, cardiovascular, respiratory, GIT, and renal systems. Theory Paper 2 covers endocrine, special senses, nervous system, nerve-muscle physiology, skin/body temperature, and reproduction. Practical I involves clinical exams and procedures on subjects. Practical II involves hematology experiments and interpreting case histories/problems. Both practical sessions are 2 hours each and carry 35 marks testing different exam components.
Physio case study
This document contains 9 physiology case studies with multiple questions in each case study. Some key details include:
- Case 1 discusses hemophilia A and B, how they are inherited, and that there is no cure but treatment focuses on replacing deficient clotting factors.
- Case 2 involves a patient with type 2 diabetes presenting with polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia due to high blood glucose but no ketones in the urine.
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Physio case study
This document contains 14 physiology case studies with multiple questions in each case study. Some key details include:
- Case studies cover topics like hemophilia, diabetes, fertility testing, thyroid disorders, Cushing's syndrome, hyperparathyroidism, diabetes insipidus, dwarfism, myasthenia gravis, costochondritis, burns, peptic ulcers, and hemiplegia.
- Questions assess understanding of disease mechanisms, symptoms, diagnostic tests, and treatment options.
- Multiple choice, short answer, and discussion questions require applying knowledge of physiology and pathophysiology.
Physio case study
This document contains 9 physiology case studies with multiple questions in each case study. Some key details include:
- Case 1 discusses hemophilia A and B, how they are inherited, and that there is no cure but treatment focuses on replacing deficient clotting factors.
- Case 2 involves a patient with type 2 diabetes presenting with polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia. Tests show no ketones in urine, indicating no diabetic ketoacidosis.
- Case 3 compares ovulation tests, which detect LH surges, to pregnancy tests, which detect hCG. It also discusses fertility awareness methods and contraception.
Regulation of respiration
The document summarizes the regulation of respiration through nervous and chemical mechanisms. The nervous mechanism involves respiratory centers in the medulla and pons that receive sensory information and control respiratory muscles. The chemical mechanism involves chemoreceptors that detect changes in blood oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion levels. Central chemoreceptors in the brainstem are sensitive to increased carbon dioxide levels, while peripheral chemoreceptors respond to decreased oxygen levels. Together the nervous and chemical mechanisms work to regulate breathing and maintain appropriate gas exchange.
Disturbances of respiration 2
Cyanosis is a bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes due to the presence of large amounts of reduced hemoglobin in the blood. It occurs in conditions that cause hypoxic or stagnant hypoxia, when hemoglobin is altered by poisoning, or when red blood cell count is increased, slowing blood flow. Cyanosis requires at least 5-7g% of reduced hemoglobin and does not occur in anemia, which reduces total hemoglobin. Asphyxia involves hypoxia and hypercapnia from airway obstruction, and leads through stages of increased then depressed breathing to convulsions, loss of consciousness, and death if not resolved. Periodic breathing patterns include Cheyne-Stokes respiration
Lec16(cvs)
The heart has two pumps - the right heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs and the left heart pumps oxygenated blood from the lungs to the rest of the body. Blood flows through the heart via the pulmonary and systemic circuits. The heart has four chambers separated by septa - the right and left atria receive blood returning to the heart while the right and left ventricles pump blood out of the heart. Heart valves prevent backflow of blood - atrioventricular valves between atria and ventricles and semilunar valves at the exits of the ventricles. Cardiac muscle has an extended action potential and refractory period compared to skeletal muscle to coordinate the pumping of the heart.
Lec18(cvs)
This document provides instructions for analyzing cardiac rhythms based on an electrocardiogram (ECG). It describes 5 steps: 1) calculating the heart rate, 2) determining rhythm regularity, 3) assessing P waves, 4) measuring the PR interval, and 5) measuring QRS duration. Normal values for these metrics in normal sinus rhythm are also provided. The document additionally covers ECG lead placements and how the cardiac electrical conduction system generates the ECG tracings.
Cvs7
The document summarizes the cardiovascular system and regulation of blood pressure. It describes how the brain monitors and controls blood flow and pressure on a beat-to-beat basis to meet metabolic demands. Blood pressure is influenced by cardiac output, peripheral resistance, and blood volume. The document then discusses short term regulation of blood pressure by baroreceptor reflexes, chemoreceptor reflexes, and local mechanisms, as well as long term regulation by the renal-body fluid system including the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism.
Circulatory shock
Circulatory shock is characterized by inadequate tissue perfusion and cardiac output. There are four types of shock depending on the cause: hypovolemic from low blood volume, vasogenic from toxic substances causing vasodilation, cardiogenic from reduced heart pumping ability, and obstructive from impaired ventricular filling. Shock is divided into three stages - compensatory, progressive as mechanisms fail to stop shock progression, and irreversible where treatment becomes ineffective and tissue damage occurs. General shock treatment includes keeping the patient warm, elevating the legs, fluid replacement, sympathominetic drugs, and oxygen therapy.
Heart sounds
The document discusses heart sounds, describing the four main sounds - S1, S2, S3, and S4. S1 occurs with the closing of the atrioventricular valves, coinciding with the R wave of an ECG. S2 occurs with the closing of the semilunar valves, coinciding with the T wave. S3 occurs during rapid ventricular filling between the T and P waves. S4 occurs during atrial systole between the P wave and Q wave. Heart sounds provide diagnostic value for assessing cardiac diseases and can be studied using a stethoscope, microphone, or phonocardiogram.
Blood supply of git
The document discusses the blood supply of the gastrointestinal tract. It begins by describing the abdominal aorta and its branches, including the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and inferior mesenteric artery. These three anterior branches supply the foregut, midgut, and hindgut, respectively. It then provides details on the branches and drainage territories of each vessel. Venous drainage is described next, with the portal vein forming from the superior mesenteric and splenic veins to drain blood from the abdominal gastrointestinal tract and related organs into the liver. The document concludes by noting some portosystemic anastomoses and their clinical significance.
Urinary bladder and urethra
The urinary bladder is a musculomembranous sac located in the pelvis that acts as a reservoir for urine. The bladder expands upward into the abdomen as it fills with urine. The urethra begins at the base of the bladder and exits through the urethral orifice, differing in length and path between males and females. The bladder and urethra are supplied by nerves from the pelvic plexus and receive blood from the internal iliac arteries.
Bony pelvis
The pelvis is made of hip bones and the sacrum joined by ligaments. For obstetric purposes, it is divided into the false pelvis and true pelvis. The false pelvis above the pelvic brim is not relevant to delivery. The true pelvis below the brim includes the pelvic inlet, cavity, and outlet which determine the size and shape of the birth canal. The pelvis comes in different shapes like gynaecoid, android, platypelloid, and anthropoid which can impact the birthing process. Clinical assessments include examining the woman's body build, using the fetal head as a pelvimeter, and radiological exams to measure pelvic dimensions and fetal
Development of heart
The development of the heart occurs in several key stages:
1. Angiogenic cell clusters form in the lateral plate mesoderm and proliferate to form the initial heart tube structure.
2. The heart tube fuses into a single tube and develops an inner endocardial layer and outer myocardial layer.
3. The heart tube loops from right to left, forming the basic four-chamber structure of the heart. Local expansions form the atria, ventricles, and outflow tracts.
4. Partitioning occurs - endocardial cushions form and divide the atria and ventricles, while ridges partition the outflow tracts into the aorta and pulmonary trunk. This
Physio updated
This document provides a list of seminar topics and presenting students for the Physiology Department at the International Medical School Shah Alam Campus. There are 60 seminar topics organized under different physiology categories like Cardiovascular System, Endocrine System, Kidney, Exercise Physiology, Central Nervous System, and Special Senses. Each topic is assigned to a student who will present on it, including their name and student identification number. The dates that each group of topics will be presented are provided as well.
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A statistics is a measure which is used to estimate the population parameter
Parameters-It is used to describe the properties of an entire population.
Examples-Measures of central tendency Dispersion, Variance, Standard Deviation (SD), Absolute Error, Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Eigen Value
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Pharmacology of 5-hydroxytryptamine and Antagonist
5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT or Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that serves a range of roles in the human body. It is sometimes referred to as the happy chemical since it promotes overall well-being and happiness.
It is mostly found in the brain, intestines, and blood platelets.
5-HT is utilised to transport messages between nerve cells, is known to be involved in smooth muscle contraction, and adds to overall well-being and pleasure, among other benefits. 5-HT regulates the body's sleep-wake cycles and internal clock by acting as a precursor to melatonin.
It is hypothesised to regulate hunger, emotions, motor, cognitive, and autonomic processes.
Breast cancer: Post menopausal endocrine therapy
Breast cancer in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive (HR+) status is a common and complex condition that necessitates a multifaceted approach to management. HR+ breast cancer means that the cancer cells grow in response to hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. This subtype is prevalent among postmenopausal women and typically exhibits a more indolent course compared to other forms of breast cancer, which allows for a variety of treatment options.
Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is generally reserved for patients with high-risk features, such as large tumor size, high-grade histology, or extensive lymph node involvement. Regimens often include anthracyclines and taxanes.
The Nervous and Chemical Regulation of Respiration
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
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M.pharm - 1st year .PGx Analysis in VarSeq: A User’s Perspective
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Respiratory
- 1. Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Seventh Edition Elaine N. Marieb Chapter 13 The Respiratory System
- 4. Slide 13.3b Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 13.2 Upper Respiratory Tract
- 10. Slide 13.3b Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 13.2 Upper Respiratory Tract
- 18. Lungs Slide 13.12b Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 13.4b
- 27. Respiratory Membrane (Air-Blood Barrier) Slide 13.18b Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 13.6
- 34. Inspiration Slide 13.22b Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 13.7a
- 36. Exhalation Slide 13.23b Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 13.7b
- 43. Respiratory Capacities Slide 13.30 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 13.9
- 50. Internal Respiration Slide 13.34b Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 13.11
- 51. External Respiration, Gas Transport, and Internal Respiration Summary Slide 13.35 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 13.10
- 53. Neural Regulation of Respiration Slide 13.37 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 13.12
- 62. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Slide 13.43 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 13.13