Fungi can reproduce both asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction occurs through binary fission, budding, fragmentation of hyphae, or asexual spore formation. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes through plasmogamy and karyogamy to form a zygote, which then undergoes meiosis. This results in the formation of sexual spores like ascospores, basidiospores, zygospores, or oospores. Different fungi have varying sexual reproduction processes including isogamy, anisogamy, and oogamy that influence spore and structure formation.
Asexual reproduction in Fungi -Dr C R MeeraMeera C R
This slideshow describes asexual reproduction methods in fungi in detail. Methods like Fission, Budding, Fragmentation, Spore formation (Asexual spores) are explained in detail. Asexual spores and their formation are well explained with examples.
This is an illustrated account for Unit 1 of Coure Course III Mycology and Phytopathology of Bsc Hons Program - Introduction to True fungi including characters, affinities, thallus, cell wall, nutrition and classification
Detail description about important fungi that comes under chytridiomycota and zygomycota has been described, gives an idea about fungi and their life cycles under thus groups
Detail about Basidiomycetes.In this detail about its Ecosystem Relationship,Symbiotic Relationships,General characters,Basidiospores,Life cycle and its Fruiting body.
Contact Email: mzeeshan_93@yahoo.com
Asexual reproduction in Fungi -Dr C R MeeraMeera C R
This slideshow describes asexual reproduction methods in fungi in detail. Methods like Fission, Budding, Fragmentation, Spore formation (Asexual spores) are explained in detail. Asexual spores and their formation are well explained with examples.
This is an illustrated account for Unit 1 of Coure Course III Mycology and Phytopathology of Bsc Hons Program - Introduction to True fungi including characters, affinities, thallus, cell wall, nutrition and classification
Detail description about important fungi that comes under chytridiomycota and zygomycota has been described, gives an idea about fungi and their life cycles under thus groups
Detail about Basidiomycetes.In this detail about its Ecosystem Relationship,Symbiotic Relationships,General characters,Basidiospores,Life cycle and its Fruiting body.
Contact Email: mzeeshan_93@yahoo.com
This maybe of help for UG+PG Botany students studying mycology. It's about the general account of class Chytridiomycetes. Good for quick revision and information.
*Critics are very welcomed*
Fungi are a kingdom of usually multicellular eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophs (cannot make their own food) and have important roles in nutrient cycling in an ecosystem. Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually, and they also have symbiotic associations with plants and bacteria.
Heterothallic species have sexes that reside in different individuals. . The term is applied particularly to distinguish heterothallic fungi, which require two compatible partners to produce sexual spores, from homothallic ones, which are capable of sexual reproduction from a single organism.
Fungi get their nutrition by absorbing organic compounds from the environment. Fungi are heterotrophic: they rely solely on carbon obtained from other organisms for their metabolism and nutrition. Fungi have evolved in a way that allows many of them to use a large variety of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol. Their mode of nutrition defines the role of fungi in their environment.
Fungi obtain nutrients in three different ways:
They decompose dead organic matter. A saprotroph is an organism that obtains its nutrients from non-living organic matter, usually dead and decaying plant or animal matter, by absorbing soluble organic compounds. Saprotrophic fungi play very important roles as recyclers in ecosystem energy flow and biogeochemical cycles. Saprophytic fungi, such as shiitake (Lentinula edodes) and oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), decompose dead plant and animal tissue by releasing enzymes from hyphal tips. In this way, they recycle organic materials back into the surrounding environment. Because of these abilities, fungi are the primary decomposers in forests.
They feed on living hosts. As parasites, fungi live in or on other organisms and get their nutrients from their host. Parasitic fungi use enzymes to break down living tissue, which may cause illness in the host. Disease-causing fungi are parasitic. Recall that parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species in which one, the parasite, benefits from a close association with the other, the host, which is harmed.
They live mutualistically with other organisms. Mutualistic fungi live harmlessly with other living organisms. Recall that mutualism is an interaction between individuals of two different species, in which both individuals benefit.
FUNGI - ROLE IN AGRICULTURE,MEDICINE & COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. ChhanKumarkalita
TOPIC: FUNGI - ROLE IN AGRICULTURE,MEDICINE & COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.
Presented By: Chhan kumar kalita
B.Sc. in Botany, Dept of Botany, B.P. Chaliha College, Nagarbera
M.Sc. in Botany, Dept of Botany, Nowgown College (Autonomous)
The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual, and sexual methods. Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation, where each fragment develops into a thallus. Asexual reproduction is by the production of flagellated zoospores which on germination give rise to new plants.
This maybe of help for UG+PG Botany students studying mycology. It's about the general account of class Chytridiomycetes. Good for quick revision and information.
*Critics are very welcomed*
Fungi are a kingdom of usually multicellular eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophs (cannot make their own food) and have important roles in nutrient cycling in an ecosystem. Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually, and they also have symbiotic associations with plants and bacteria.
Heterothallic species have sexes that reside in different individuals. . The term is applied particularly to distinguish heterothallic fungi, which require two compatible partners to produce sexual spores, from homothallic ones, which are capable of sexual reproduction from a single organism.
Fungi get their nutrition by absorbing organic compounds from the environment. Fungi are heterotrophic: they rely solely on carbon obtained from other organisms for their metabolism and nutrition. Fungi have evolved in a way that allows many of them to use a large variety of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol. Their mode of nutrition defines the role of fungi in their environment.
Fungi obtain nutrients in three different ways:
They decompose dead organic matter. A saprotroph is an organism that obtains its nutrients from non-living organic matter, usually dead and decaying plant or animal matter, by absorbing soluble organic compounds. Saprotrophic fungi play very important roles as recyclers in ecosystem energy flow and biogeochemical cycles. Saprophytic fungi, such as shiitake (Lentinula edodes) and oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), decompose dead plant and animal tissue by releasing enzymes from hyphal tips. In this way, they recycle organic materials back into the surrounding environment. Because of these abilities, fungi are the primary decomposers in forests.
They feed on living hosts. As parasites, fungi live in or on other organisms and get their nutrients from their host. Parasitic fungi use enzymes to break down living tissue, which may cause illness in the host. Disease-causing fungi are parasitic. Recall that parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species in which one, the parasite, benefits from a close association with the other, the host, which is harmed.
They live mutualistically with other organisms. Mutualistic fungi live harmlessly with other living organisms. Recall that mutualism is an interaction between individuals of two different species, in which both individuals benefit.
FUNGI - ROLE IN AGRICULTURE,MEDICINE & COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. ChhanKumarkalita
TOPIC: FUNGI - ROLE IN AGRICULTURE,MEDICINE & COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.
Presented By: Chhan kumar kalita
B.Sc. in Botany, Dept of Botany, B.P. Chaliha College, Nagarbera
M.Sc. in Botany, Dept of Botany, Nowgown College (Autonomous)
The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual, and sexual methods. Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation, where each fragment develops into a thallus. Asexual reproduction is by the production of flagellated zoospores which on germination give rise to new plants.
Ascomycota is a phylum of the kingdom Fungi that, together with the Basidiomycota, forms the subkingdom Dikarya. Its members are commonly known as the sac fungi or ascomycetes. It is the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000 species.The defining feature of this fungal group is the "ascus" (from Ancient Greek ἀσκός (askós) 'sac, wineskin'), a microscopic sexual structure in which nonmotile spores, called ascospores, are formed. However, some species of the Ascomycota are asexual, meaning that they do not have a sexual cycle and thus do not form asci or ascospores. Familiar examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, brewers' and bakers' yeast, dead man's fingers, and cup fungi. The fungal symbionts in the majority of lichens (loosely termed "ascolichens") such as Cladonia belong to the Ascomycota.
Ascomycota is a monophyletic group (it contains all descendants of one common ancestor). Previously placed in the Deuteromycota along with asexual species from other fungal taxa, asexual (or anamorphic) ascomycetes are now identified and classified based on morphological or physiological similarities to ascus-bearing taxa, and by phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences.
Asexual reproduction is the production of new individuals from a single parent. This type of reproduction is generally observed in single-celled organisms. Here no fusion of gametes is involved and a single parent divides into two or more daughter cells. The offsprings produced are genetically and physically identical to the parent and are known as clones.
description of different types of reproductive organs, developmental stages and process of reproduction in Cycas. Various internet sources have been used.
Characterization and the Kinetics of drying at the drying oven and with micro...Open Access Research Paper
The objective of this work is to contribute to valorization de Nephelium lappaceum by the characterization of kinetics of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum. The seeds were dehydrated until a constant mass respectively in a drying oven and a microwawe oven. The temperatures and the powers of drying are respectively: 50, 60 and 70°C and 140, 280 and 420 W. The results show that the curves of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum do not present a phase of constant kinetics. The coefficients of diffusion vary between 2.09.10-8 to 2.98. 10-8m-2/s in the interval of 50°C at 70°C and between 4.83×10-07 at 9.04×10-07 m-8/s for the powers going of 140 W with 420 W the relation between Arrhenius and a value of energy of activation of 16.49 kJ. mol-1 expressed the effect of the temperature on effective diffusivity.
Natural farming @ Dr. Siddhartha S. Jena.pptxsidjena70
A brief about organic farming/ Natural farming/ Zero budget natural farming/ Subash Palekar Natural farming which keeps us and environment safe and healthy. Next gen Agricultural practices of chemical free farming.
"Understanding the Carbon Cycle: Processes, Human Impacts, and Strategies for...MMariSelvam4
The carbon cycle is a critical component of Earth's environmental system, governing the movement and transformation of carbon through various reservoirs, including the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms. This complex cycle involves several key processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and carbon sequestration, each contributing to the regulation of carbon levels on the planet.
Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and deforestation, have significantly altered the natural carbon cycle, leading to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and driving climate change. Understanding the intricacies of the carbon cycle is essential for assessing the impacts of these changes and developing effective mitigation strategies.
By studying the carbon cycle, scientists can identify carbon sources and sinks, measure carbon fluxes, and predict future trends. This knowledge is crucial for crafting policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions, enhancing carbon storage, and promoting sustainable practices. The carbon cycle's interplay with climate systems, ecosystems, and human activities underscores its importance in maintaining a stable and healthy planet.
In-depth exploration of the carbon cycle reveals the delicate balance required to sustain life and the urgent need to address anthropogenic influences. Through research, education, and policy, we can work towards restoring equilibrium in the carbon cycle and ensuring a sustainable future for generations to come.
WRI’s brand new “Food Service Playbook for Promoting Sustainable Food Choices” gives food service operators the very latest strategies for creating dining environments that empower consumers to choose sustainable, plant-rich dishes. This research builds off our first guide for food service, now with industry experience and insights from nearly 350 academic trials.
Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Venturesgreendigital
Willie Nelson is a name that resonates within the world of music and entertainment. Known for his unique voice, and masterful guitar skills. and an extraordinary career spanning several decades. Nelson has become a legend in the country music scene. But, his influence extends far beyond the realm of music. with ventures in acting, writing, activism, and business. This comprehensive article delves into Willie Nelson net worth. exploring the various facets of his career that have contributed to his large fortune.
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Introduction
Willie Nelson net worth is a testament to his enduring influence and success in many fields. Born on April 29, 1933, in Abbott, Texas. Nelson's journey from a humble beginning to becoming one of the most iconic figures in American music is nothing short of inspirational. His net worth, which estimated to be around $25 million as of 2024. reflects a career that is as diverse as it is prolific.
Early Life and Musical Beginnings
Humble Origins
Willie Hugh Nelson was born during the Great Depression. a time of significant economic hardship in the United States. Raised by his grandparents. Nelson found solace and inspiration in music from an early age. His grandmother taught him to play the guitar. setting the stage for what would become an illustrious career.
First Steps in Music
Nelson's initial foray into the music industry was fraught with challenges. He moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue his dreams, but success did not come . Working as a songwriter, Nelson penned hits for other artists. which helped him gain a foothold in the competitive music scene. His songwriting skills contributed to his early earnings. laying the foundation for his net worth.
Rise to Stardom
Breakthrough Albums
The 1970s marked a turning point in Willie Nelson's career. His albums "Shotgun Willie" (1973), "Red Headed Stranger" (1975). and "Stardust" (1978) received critical acclaim and commercial success. These albums not only solidified his position in the country music genre. but also introduced his music to a broader audience. The success of these albums played a crucial role in boosting Willie Nelson net worth.
Iconic Songs
Willie Nelson net worth is also attributed to his extensive catalog of hit songs. Tracks like "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain," "On the Road Again," and "Always on My Mind" have become timeless classics. These songs have not only earned Nelson large royalties but have also ensured his continued relevance in the music industry.
Acting and Film Career
Hollywood Ventures
In addition to his music career, Willie Nelson has also made a mark in Hollywood. His distinctive personality and on-screen presence have landed him roles in several films and television shows. Notable appearances include roles in "The Electric Horseman" (1979), "Honeysuckle Rose" (1980), and "Barbarosa" (1982). These acting gigs have added a significant amount to Willie Nelson net worth.
Television Appearances
Nelson's char
3. 1. Binary fission
• In binary fission a mature cell
elongates and its nucleus divides
into two daughter nuclei.
• The daughter nuclei separates,
cleaves cytoplasm centripetally
in the middle till it divides parent
protoplasm into two daughter
protoplasm.
• A double cross wall is deposited
in the middle to form two
daughter cell.
• Ultimately the middle layer of
double cross wall degenerates
and daughter cells are separated.
• Examples: Saccharomyces
pobbe, Psygosaccharomyces
4. 2. Budding
• The cell wall bulge out and softens in the area probably by
certain enzymes brought by vesicles.
• The protoplasm also bulge out in this region.
• The parent nucleus also divides into two, one of the
daughter nucleus migrates into bud, the cytoplasm of bud
and mother remain continuous for some time
• As the bud enlarges, a septum is laid down at the joining of
bud with mother cell. Then bud separates and leads
independent life.
• Some time, bud starts reproducing while still attached with
mother cell. This gives branching appearance.
• Budding is the typical reproductive characteristics of
Ascomycetes.
• Examples: yeast
5. 3. Fragmentation
• In some fungi, fragmentation or disjoining of
hyphae occurs and each hyphae become a
new organism
6. 4. Asexual reproduction :
• Spore formation is the characteristic feature of fungi.
• Fungi reproduce sexually by spore formation.
• Fungi produce large no of spores in single cycle.
• Spores are produced during favourable formation.
• The spores have thick wall.
• Unicellular fungi like yeasts reproduce by binary fission or
budding.
TYPES OF SPORES :
1. Endospores :
The spores produced inside the sporangia are called endospores.
2. Conidia :
The spores produced at the tip of hypha outside the sporangia
are called conidia. Conidia are produced on special hypha called
conidiophores.
7. 4. Aplanospores :The non-motiple aquatic fungi
are called aplanospores.
5. Arthrospores or oidia: In some fungi,the
hyphae break up into individual cells.These
cells behave as spores.such spores are called
arthrospores or oidia.
6.Clamydospores: Sometimes,individual cells of
the hyphae become thick walled.These cells
behave as spores.Such spores are called
clamydospores.
8. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Sexual reproduction in fungi has three phases:
a) Plasmogamy:Two gametes fuse and bring the
two haploid nuclei in the same cell.
b) Karyogamy:The two haploid nuclei fuse to
form a single diploid or zygotic nucleus.
c) Meiosis:Reduction division occurs in zygotic
nucleus.it produces the haploid nuclei.
9. Detail of sexual reproduction is different in different fungi:
1. Isogamy and anisogamy:
Occurs in lower aquatic fungi and some terrestrial higher fungi.
• Gametangia
• Microgamete
• Macrogamete
• Zygospore
2. Oogamy:
Two gametangia are different in size and shape.
• Anthredium
• Oogonium
• Oosphere
10. 3. Spermatization
• Anthredia arent formed
• Fungi develop conidia like spermatia
• Spermatia unite with the sex organ or vegetative
hypha of female, plasmogamy occur.
• This dikaryotic hyphae are produced.
4. Direct union of vegetative hypha and
parthenogenesis
• Common in fungi
• In some forms plasmogamy takes place by the
direct union of monokaryotic vegetative hypha.
11. Plasmogamy and karyogamy
a. Lower fungi
• In the lower fungi karyogamy takes place
immediately after fertilization.
• The oosphere is transformed into an oospore.
• Meiosis takes place at the time of oospore
germination, in some forms the contents of the
anthridium are transformed into motile male
gametes or antherozoids. The move toward the
oogonium, enter and fertilize the egg.
12. b. Higher fungi
Dikaryotic hyphae.
• Oogonium forms the special hyphae. Each cell of
these hyphae contains two nuclei. Both nuclei
divide at the same time this type of division is
called Conjugate division. Such hypha are called
dikaryotic hypha.
• The stimulus of plasmogamy produces fruiting
body or sporophores.
• Karyogamy takes place in special cells.
• Meiosis follows karyogamy.
• It produces special spores.
13. Clamp connections
• Peculiar structure ….. In Basidiomycota.
• Formed in dikaryotic mycelium usually in terminal
hypha cells during conjugate division of the
dikaryons.
• Sister nuclei seperated into two daughter cells.
• Lateral outgrowth
• Nuclei divide.
• Septum form between upper cell and outgrowth.
• Outgrowth joint with the adjacent cells.
• The lateral pocket thus form by the outgrowth, it
becomes passage for the transference of nuclei
and called as clamp connection.
14. Basidia in fungi
Members of basidiomycota …basidia.
a) Stichobasidia
Basidium divides by transverse septa into four celled structure. The
terminal cell produces sterigma at its apex. Common in smut and
rust.
b) Chlastobasidia
Globular
Divides vertically to forms four cells.
Each cell forms sterigma at the tip of which basidiospores are formed.
c) Tuning fork type
Basidium is slender hypha like structure. It is deeply divided and
resembles a tuning form.
d) Normal type of basidia
These are spherical or clavate in shape. They are one celled or
unseptate. These bare four basidiospores born on short sterigmata.
e,.g Agaricus
15. Fruiting bodies or ascocarp in
ascomycota
May form singly or in groups. May be different.
a. Cleistothecium
Spherical
Closed ascocarps
Ascospores liberated by the rupturing of its walls.
b. Perithecium
More or less closed.
At maturity , a pore appears in it. Ascospores are liberated through
these pores.
c. Apothecium
Asci are formed in open ascocarp.
d. Ascostoroma
Asci are produced as cavity within stroma. The stroma itself forms
the walls of ascocarp.
16.
17. Sexual spores of fungi
As a result of sexual reproduction sexual
spores are produced.
• Sexual spores are fewer in number than
asexual spores.
• Types of sexual spores
i. Ascospore
ii. Basidiospore
iii. Zygospore
iv. Oospore
18. i. Ascospore:
• It is usually single celled produced in a sac called ascus
(plural;asci) and usually there are 4-8 ascospore in an
ascus but the number may vary from species to species
• The ascospore are usually arranged in a linear order. In
some case ascospores are long, narrow and are
arranged in parallel order.
ii. Basidiospore:
• It is a reproductive spore produced by basidiomycetes.
• This single celled spores are born in a club shaped
structure called basidium
• These basidiospore aerves as main air dispersal unit for
the fungi.
19. iii. Zygospore:
• Zygospores are thick walled spores formed when two
sexually compatible hyphae or gametangia of certain
fungi fuse together.
• In suitable condition, zygospore germinates to produce
a single vertical hyphae which forms a aporangium and
releases its spores
iv. Oospore:
• These are formed within a special female structure
called Oogonium.
• Fertilization of egg by male gamete in female sex organ
give rise to oospoes.
• There are one or more oospores in each oogonium.
20. Life cycle
• Haploid phase
• Dipload phase
• Haploid and diploid phases
• Dikaryotic phase
