The document provides information on the classification of fungi in the kingdom Basidiomycota. It discusses the three subdivisions of Basidiomycota - Agaricomycotina, Pucciniomycotina, and Ustilaginomycotina. Within the Agaricomycotina subdivision, it lists several orders, families, and genera of fungi. It also describes the general characters of Basidiomycota fungi, including their life cycle, reproduction methods, and cellular structures like basidia, clamp connections, and dolipore septa.
Introduction
Class Zygomycetes
General characters of Zygomycetes
Order Mucorales
Order Entomophthorales
Order Zoopagales
Life cycle of zygomycetes in Rhizopus stolonifer
Introduction
Class Zygomycetes
General characters of Zygomycetes
Order Mucorales
Order Entomophthorales
Order Zoopagales
Life cycle of zygomycetes in Rhizopus stolonifer
Asexual reproduction in Fungi -Dr C R MeeraMeera C R
This slideshow describes asexual reproduction methods in fungi in detail. Methods like Fission, Budding, Fragmentation, Spore formation (Asexual spores) are explained in detail. Asexual spores and their formation are well explained with examples.
Introduction,In some fungi ,true sexual cycle comprising of nuclear fusion and meiosis is absent.
These fungi derive the benefits of sexuality through a cycle know as parasexuaL cycle.
First Reported by- Gudio Pontecorvo and J.A.Roper(1952)
Parasexual cycle was reported in
Aspergillus nidulans,the imperfect stage of Emericella nidulans.
Since then parasexual cycle has been discovered not only in several members of Deutromycetes but also in fungi belonging to Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes.
DEFINETION - Parasexuality is defined as a cycle in which Plasmogamy, Karyogamy and Meiosis [Haploidization] take place in sequence but not at a specified time or at specified points in the life cycle of an organism.
Generally parasexual cycle occurs in those fungi in which true sexual cycle does not take place.
Parasexualcycle also know as Somatic recombination. PASEXUALITY ALSO REPORTED IN SOME ORGANISMS- Aspergillus nigar, Penicillium crysogenum, STEPS OF PARASEXUAL CYCLE - 1) ESTABLISHMENT OF HETEROKARYOSIS, 2) Formation of Heterozygous DIPLOIDS, 3) occasional mitotic crossing-over during multiplication of diploid nuclei, 4)occasional haplodization through aneuploidy , COMPARISION BETWEEN SEXUAL AND PARASEXUAL CYCLE, IMPORTANCE OF PARASEXUALITY, C0NCLUSION
What is bacteria?(Structures Present in Bacteria And their Functions | Prokar...sehriqayyum
Explains what bacteria is and where it exists.
A key feature of nearly all prokaryotic cells is the cell wall, which maintains cell shape, protects the cell, and prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic environment.
The cell walls of prokaryotes differ in structure from those of eukaryotes. In eukaryotes that have cell walls, such as plants and fungi, the walls are usually made of cellulose or chitin. In contrast, most bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, a polymer composed of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides.
Using a technique called the Gram stain, developed by the 19th-century Danish physician Hans Christian Gram, scientists can categorize many bacterial species according to differences in cell wall composition.
Gram-positive bacteria have simpler walls with a relatively large amount of peptidoglycan. Gram-negative bacteria have less peptidoglycan
and are structurally more complex, with an outer membrane
that contains lipopolysaccharides (carbohydrates bonded
to lipids).
LEARN ABOUT:
- Bacteria
- The number of viruses on earth is staggering
- Pathogenic yeasts
- Helminths
- Harnessing bacteria
- Microbes on the tree of life
- Living and working together
- Archaea
- Protozoa
LEARN ABOUT:
- Bacteria
- The number of viruses on earth is staggering
- Pathogenic yeasts
- Helminths
- Harnessing bacteria
- Microbes on the tree of life
- Living and working together
- Archaea
- Protozoa
The bacterial flagellum has three main parts (the motor, hook, and filament) that are themselves composed of 42 different kinds of proteins.The cells of prokaryotes are simpler than those of eukaryotes
in both their internal structure and the physical arrangement
of their DNA. The genome of a prokaryote is structurally different from
a eukaryotic genome and in most cases has considerably less DNA. Prokaryotes generally have circular chromosomes, whereas eukaryotes have linear chromosomes.
Asexual reproduction in Fungi -Dr C R MeeraMeera C R
This slideshow describes asexual reproduction methods in fungi in detail. Methods like Fission, Budding, Fragmentation, Spore formation (Asexual spores) are explained in detail. Asexual spores and their formation are well explained with examples.
Introduction,In some fungi ,true sexual cycle comprising of nuclear fusion and meiosis is absent.
These fungi derive the benefits of sexuality through a cycle know as parasexuaL cycle.
First Reported by- Gudio Pontecorvo and J.A.Roper(1952)
Parasexual cycle was reported in
Aspergillus nidulans,the imperfect stage of Emericella nidulans.
Since then parasexual cycle has been discovered not only in several members of Deutromycetes but also in fungi belonging to Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes.
DEFINETION - Parasexuality is defined as a cycle in which Plasmogamy, Karyogamy and Meiosis [Haploidization] take place in sequence but not at a specified time or at specified points in the life cycle of an organism.
Generally parasexual cycle occurs in those fungi in which true sexual cycle does not take place.
Parasexualcycle also know as Somatic recombination. PASEXUALITY ALSO REPORTED IN SOME ORGANISMS- Aspergillus nigar, Penicillium crysogenum, STEPS OF PARASEXUAL CYCLE - 1) ESTABLISHMENT OF HETEROKARYOSIS, 2) Formation of Heterozygous DIPLOIDS, 3) occasional mitotic crossing-over during multiplication of diploid nuclei, 4)occasional haplodization through aneuploidy , COMPARISION BETWEEN SEXUAL AND PARASEXUAL CYCLE, IMPORTANCE OF PARASEXUALITY, C0NCLUSION
What is bacteria?(Structures Present in Bacteria And their Functions | Prokar...sehriqayyum
Explains what bacteria is and where it exists.
A key feature of nearly all prokaryotic cells is the cell wall, which maintains cell shape, protects the cell, and prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic environment.
The cell walls of prokaryotes differ in structure from those of eukaryotes. In eukaryotes that have cell walls, such as plants and fungi, the walls are usually made of cellulose or chitin. In contrast, most bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, a polymer composed of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides.
Using a technique called the Gram stain, developed by the 19th-century Danish physician Hans Christian Gram, scientists can categorize many bacterial species according to differences in cell wall composition.
Gram-positive bacteria have simpler walls with a relatively large amount of peptidoglycan. Gram-negative bacteria have less peptidoglycan
and are structurally more complex, with an outer membrane
that contains lipopolysaccharides (carbohydrates bonded
to lipids).
LEARN ABOUT:
- Bacteria
- The number of viruses on earth is staggering
- Pathogenic yeasts
- Helminths
- Harnessing bacteria
- Microbes on the tree of life
- Living and working together
- Archaea
- Protozoa
LEARN ABOUT:
- Bacteria
- The number of viruses on earth is staggering
- Pathogenic yeasts
- Helminths
- Harnessing bacteria
- Microbes on the tree of life
- Living and working together
- Archaea
- Protozoa
The bacterial flagellum has three main parts (the motor, hook, and filament) that are themselves composed of 42 different kinds of proteins.The cells of prokaryotes are simpler than those of eukaryotes
in both their internal structure and the physical arrangement
of their DNA. The genome of a prokaryote is structurally different from
a eukaryotic genome and in most cases has considerably less DNA. Prokaryotes generally have circular chromosomes, whereas eukaryotes have linear chromosomes.
REPRODUCTION IN FUNGI
Vegetative Reproduction
-Fission of somatic cell
-Budding of somatic cell
-Fragmentation or disjoining of hypha
Asexual spore formation
-Endospore
-Conidia
-Aplanospores
-Arthrospores/Oidia
-Chlamydomonas
Sexual Reproduction
-Plasmogamy
-Karyogamy
-Meiosis
---Oogamy
---Isogamy and anisogamy
---Spermatization
---Direct union of vegetative hypha and parthenogenesis
SEXUAL SPORES IN FUNGI
i. Ascospore
ii. Basidiospore
iii. Zygospore
iv. Oospore
LIFE CYCLE
--Haploid phase
--Dipload phase
--Haploid and diploid phases
--Dikaryotic phase
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T) Unit-III Part-1 Study of morphology, cla...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-IIIPart-1Study of morphology, classification, reproduction/replication and cultivation of fungi, Introduction fungi. Morphological Characteristics of fungi, CLASSIFICATION: Depending on cell morphology, fungi can be divided into 4 classes:
Moulds Yeasts ,Yeast like fungi and
Dimorphic fungi
Depending on their sexual spores formation fungi are divided into 4 classes:
Zygomycetes Ascomycetes
Basidiomycetes Dueteromycetes
Reproduction and sporulation;Vegetative, Asexual
and Sexual
Vegetative reproduction: Fragmentation ,Fission, budding, Sclerotia Rhizomorphs
Asexual reproduction: Zoospores
Sporangiospore, Conidia
Oidia Uredospores ,Basidiospores
Sexual reproduction:Planogametic copulation: Isogamy Heterogamy
Gametangial contact
Gametangial copulation Spermatization Somatogamy CULTIVATION OF FUNGI: Brain Heart Infusion (BHT) agar
Czapek’s agar
Mycobiotic agar Inhibitory mold agar (IMA)
Potato dextrose agar
Sabouraud’s dextrose agar (SDA):
Sabouraud’s heart infusion (SABHI) agar
Potato Flake agar
Potato dextrose-yeast extract agar (PDYA)
. Cornmeal agar
Malt extract agar (MEA)
Bacteria are unicellular, procaryotic microorganisms which have diverse shape size and structures. Bacteria are found almost everywhere on Earth. Even the human body is full of bacteria, and in fact is estimated to contain more bacterial cells than human cells. Most bacteria in the body are harmless, and some are even helpful. A relatively small number of species cause disease.
1. IMPORTANT FEATURES • Chi0nous cell walls • Hyphae with septa (cross‐walls) – Except for Yeasts (non‐hypha) • Ability of soma0c assimila0ve hypha to fuse with one another and to exchange nuclei (anastomosis) • Occurrence in their life cycle of a dikaryon (diploid)
2. THE MEIOSPORANGIA OR ASCUS
3. IMPORTANT CHARACTERS IN AN ASCOMYCETE LIFE CYCLE HOLOMORPH = ANAMORPH + TELEOMORPH WHOLE FUNGUS = ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION + SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
4. THE TELEOMORPH (SEXUAL) • When an ascospore germinates, it establishes a haploid mycelium. • In heterothallic ascomycetes, this can't undergo sexual reproduc0on un0l it meets another compa0ble haploid mycelium. • When this rare event takes place, the fungus cleverly maximizes the ensuing poten0al for gene0c recombina0on. • One would expect a single sexual fusion, resul0ng in a single zygote
5. THE ASCOMA OR ASCOMATA
6. ASCOMYCETE FRUITING STRUCTURES • The mul0cellular structures (ascomata) that produce the asci, and act as the plaMorms from which the spores are launched • Four Types – Apothecial – Perithecial – Pseudothecial – Cleistothecial
7. APOTHECIAL ASCOMA • The construc0on of the ascoma may allow several or many asci to discharge simultaneously because the en0re fer0le layer or hymenium is exposed...
8. PERITHECIAL ASCOMATA • contain unitunicate‐ inoperculate asci
9. PSEUDOTHECIAL ASCOMATA • contain bitunicate asci
10. CLEISTOTHECIAL ASCOMATA • asci oPen spherical and no longer shoot their spores: the fungus has evolved a new dispersal strategy • the fungus fruits in a confined space (for example, under bark, or below the surface of the ground) where airborne dispersal cannot operate • asci are clearly visible and not arranged in a layer or hymenium (as they were in the other three kinds of ascoma)
11. THE ASCUS/ASCI The Ascomycete Spores
12. FOUR TYPES OF ASCUS/ASCI • Unitunicate Operculate • Unitunicate Inoperculate • Protunicate • Bitunicate
13. UNITUNICATE OPERCULATE ASCI • have a single wall • have a built‐in lid or operculum which pops open so that the spores can be ejected • found only in apothecial ascomata
14. UNITUNICATE INOPERCULATE ASCI • have no operculum, but have a special elas0c ring mechanism built into their 0p (apical ring) • this is a pre‐set pressure release valve, or sphincter, and the ring eventually stretches momentarily, or turns inside out, to let the spores shoot through • found in perithecial and some apothecial ascomata
Describe in detail about fungi and general characters of fungi and different modifications and reproduction in fungi especially for undergraduate students
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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4. Classification of Basidiomycota
Order: Agaricales
Family :Agaricaceae
Genus: Agaricus,
Coprinus,
Lycoperdon
Family :Amanitaceae
Genus: Amanita
Family :Trichlomataceae
Genus: Armillaria
Family :Pleurotaceae
Genus: Pleurotus
Family :Pluteaceae
Genus: Volvariella
Family :Lyophyllaceae
Genus: Calocybe
7. General Characters of Basidiomycota
1. Commonly called as “Club Fungi”
2. Consists of Filamentous Fungi – Septate hyphae with
perforated “Dolipore septum” which allows cytoplasm to
flow freely between cells
3. Cell components are made up of Chitin and Glucan
4. Reproduce by both sexually and asexually
5. It possess mostly single club shaped basidium on which four
basidiospores are borne at the tips of minute stalks called
sterigmata
6. Actively discharged basidiospores – Ballistospores
7. Passively discharged basidiospores – Statismospores
8. Clamp connection
Basidium
Basidiospores
Sterigma
Basidium with
Basidiospores
9. • Primary Hyphae – develops from a germinating basidiospore. Nuclear status = n
• Secondary Hyphae – results from fusion of two primary hyphae. Yields n+n cell
that continues to grow as a n+n hyphae
• Tertiary hyphae – exactly the same as secondary hyphae, n+n. However, it has
thick walls that enable production of fleshy and wood sporophores
3 types of Hypha
10. • The word basidium literally means "little pedestal“
• A basidium is a microscopic spore-producing structure
found on the hymenophore of reproductive
bodies of basidiomycete fungi
• These bodies also called tertiary mycelia, which are highly
coiled versions of secondary mycelia
• A basidium usually bears four sexual spores
called basidiospores
• A partially grown basidium is known as a basidiole.
Basidium
Basidium with
Basidiospores
11. Holobasidium
• Holobasidium: a non-septate basidium; single-celled, typically
club-shaped, and bearing sterigmata (usually four)
• More or less clavate, with sterigmata that are fairly small in
proportion to the basidium
• Gilled mushrooms, boletes, polypore, chanterelles, tooth fungi
have this type of basidium, and are called Holobasidiomycetes
• Also called a homobasidium
Type of Basidium
12. • A phragmobasidium is a basidium divided into
separate cells following meiosis
• The basidium is separated by the elongated two or
four cells of septa.
• A basidium that is divided into more than one cell by
transverse or longitudinal setpa
• In cross-section the metabasidium appears as four
cells
• Jelly fungi and the rusts and smuts
Phragmobasidium
Type of Basidium
14. Dolipore Septum
a. Dolipore septa are specialized dividing walls between cells (septa)
b. Have a barrel-shaped swelling around their central pore, which is about 0.1–
0.2 µm wide/ typically capped at either end by specialized membranes,
called "parenthesomes“ or “pore caps”
c. All dolipore septa can allow cytoplasm, and sometimes mitochondria, to
flow through their pores those in monokaryotic hyphae have perforated
parenthesomes, which allow cell nuclei to flow through as well
d. The function of the dolipore septum is the repair of the damages in the
hyphal. The damage of the hyphae is mainly caused by the plugging of the
electron dense material in the septum of the hyphae. This is the rapid and
the frequent problem caused in the hyphae
The structure of Dolipore septum was first described by Royall Moore and James McAlear in 1962
Dolipore septum
17. • A clamp connection is a hook like structure
formed by growing hyphal cells of certain
fungi belonging to the class Basidiomycetes
• It ensures that each cell has a compatible pair
of nuclei
• It helps to create genetic variation in sexually
reproducing species
• Clamp connection is seen in all Basidiomycota
fungi but is rarely seen in Rust fungi
Clamp Connection
18. Steps in Clamp Connection
Terminal cell of hypha. Growth only takes place at hyphal tips
Hyphal tip elongating
Synchronous division of nuclei and the beginning of hyphal branch
that will become the clamp connection. Once nucleus migrates into
the new clamp
Septum forms at base of the clamp trapping nucleus. Two nuclei of
different strains migrate to the hyphal tip, while other nucleus
migrates away from the tip
Septum forms below clamp forming new cell at hyphl tip.
Fusion of the clamp to the adjacent cell releases nucleus of
different strain to the adjacent cell
Then, both the terminal and subterminal are binucleate, each
with a compatible pair of nuclei
19. • Fungal hyphae growth
Basidiomycota fungi consist of hyphae, which are
thread-like structures that make up the fungal body. The
first step in the formation of a clamp connection is the
growth of hyphae
• Formation of a septum
As the hyphae grow, they develop septa, which are
cross-walls that separate individual hyphal cells. The
septa have pores that allow cytoplasmic and organelle
movement between adjacent hyphal cells
Various Steps in Clamp Connection
20. • Initiation of nuclear division
Within a hyphal cell, nuclear division occurs. The nucleus
undergoes mitosis, resulting in the formation of two
daughter nuclei.
• Formation of a clamp connection
After nuclear division, a specialized structure called a
clamp connection is formed in Basidiomycota fungi. The
clamp connection develops at the base of the septum,
near the original nucleus
Various Steps in Clamp Connection
21. • Extension of the clamp connection
The clamp connection extends from the base of the
septum into the adjacent hyphal cell. It grows in a spiral-
like manner and forms a bridge connecting the two
hyphal cells
• Transfer of nuclei
Once the clamp connection is established, one of the
daughter nuclei from the original hyphal cell moves
through the clamp connection and enters the adjacent
hyphal cell. This process ensures that both hyphal cells
receive a complete set of nuclei
Various Steps in Clamp Connection
22. • Cell wall reinforcement
As the clamp connection matures, the cell walls
surrounding it undergo reinforcement. This reinforcement
helps stabilize the clamp connection and prevent its
breakage
• Continued growth and branching
With the successful formation of the clamp connection,
both hyphal cells continue to grow and branch,
contributing to the overall expansion and development of
the fungal mycelium.
Various Steps in Clamp Connection
23. • The life cycle of basidiomycetes has primary, secondary and tertiary mycelium.
• They produce both haploid and dikaryotic mycelia, with the dikaryotic phase
being dominant.
• They generally reproduce sexually by forming basidiospores on a basidium.
• In the basidium, nuclei of two different mating strains fuse (karyogamy), giving
rise to a diploid zygote that then undergoes meiosis.
• The haploid nuclei migrate into four different chambers appended to the
basidium, and then become basidiospores.
Life cycle of Basidiomycetes
25. • Each basidiospore germinates and generates monokaryotic haploid hyphae that is
called a primary mycelium.
• Mycelia of different mating strains combine to produce a secondary mycelium that
contains haploid nuclei of two different mating strains.
• This forms the dominant dikaryotic stage of the basidiomycete life cycle and each
cell in this mycelium has two haploid nuclei, which will not fuse until formation of
the basidium.
• Later, the secondary mycelium generates a basidiocarp (a fruiting body). The
basidiocarp bears the developing basidia on the gills under its cap.
Life cycle of Basidiomycetes
26. Sexual Reproduction of Basidiomycetes
1. Sexual reproduction in Basidiomycota takes place
in the fruiting body, in specialized structures called
basidia
2. The basidia is itself formed by plasmogamy
between mycelia from two different spores
3. Plasmogamy results in binucleate hyphae, that is,
hyphae with two types of nuclei, one from each
parent
4. In the gills of the fruiting body, some cells undergo
fusion of these two nuclei
5. Soon after fusion, meiosis takes place, resulting in
four haploid nuclei
6. The nuclei then migrate to the terminus of the
basidium and form four individual projections
7. These projections are then separated by cell walls
to become spores
27.
28.
29. • Basidiomycota reproduce asexually by either budding or
asexual spore formation
• Budding occurs when an outgrowth of the parent cell is
separated into a new cell. Any cell in the organism can bud.
• The septae of terminal cells become fully defined, dividing
a random number of nuclei into individual cells
• The cell walls then thicken into a protective coat. The
protected spores break off and are disbursed.
Vegetative Reproduction of Basidiomycetes
30. Asexual reproduction
It takes place by chlamydospores, that are formed rarely
during unfavourable condition.
Terminal or intercalary chlamydospores are developed on
dikaryotic mycelium, which on germination during favou-
rable condition produce dikaryotic mycelium.
31. Sexual spore- Basidiospores
1. A basidiospore is a reproductive spore produced
by Basidiomycete fungi
2. Basidiospores typically each contain one haploid
nucleus that is the product of meiosis, and they
are produced by specialized fungal cells
called basidia
3. Four basidiospores develop on appendages from
each basidium, of which two are of one strain and
the other two of its opposite strain
Basidiospores of Agaricus bisporus