This document discusses proteins, their structure and functions. It covers the following key points:
1. Proteins are made of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds. Their structure involves primary, secondary, tertiary and sometimes quaternary levels. Secondary structure includes alpha helices and beta sheets formed by hydrogen bonding.
2. Proteins have many important biochemical roles such as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and structural components. Diseases can result from protein deficiencies or metabolic disorders affecting amino acid breakdown.
3. Protein structure can be disrupted through denaturation which unfolds secondary and tertiary levels, though the primary structure is maintained. Some examples of related diseases include phenylketonuria and maple syrup urine
Primary structure of protein
Secondary structure of protein
Tertiary structure of protein
Quaternary structure of protein
Methods to determine protein structure
Conclusion
References
METHODS TO DETERMINE PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Each protein has a unique sequence of amino acids.
The amino acids are held together in a protein by
covalent peptide bonds or linkages.
A peptide bond are formed when amino group of an
amino acid combines with the carboxyl group of another.
The conformation of polypeptide chain by twisting or folding is referred to as secondary structure.
Two types of secondary structures α-helix and β-sheet are mainly identified.
α-Helical structure was proposed by Pauling and Corey in 1951.
It occurs when the sequence of amino acids are linked by hydrogen bonds.
Each turn of α-helix contains 3.6 amino acids.
β-pleated sheets are composed of two or more segments of fully extended peptide chains.
β-Sheets may be arranged either in parallel or anti-parallel direction.
Many globular proteins contain combinations of α-helix and β-pleated sheet secondary structure, these patterns are called supersecondary structures also called motifs.
The three dimensional arrangement of protein structure is referred to as tertiary structure.
It is a compact structure with hydrophobic side chains held interior while the hydrophilic groups are on the surface.
This type of arrangement provide stability of the molecule.
Besides the H-bongs, disulfide bonds, ionic interactions, hydrophobic interactions also contribute to the tertiary structure.
Primary structure of protein
Secondary structure of protein
Tertiary structure of protein
Quaternary structure of protein
Methods to determine protein structure
Conclusion
References
METHODS TO DETERMINE PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Each protein has a unique sequence of amino acids.
The amino acids are held together in a protein by
covalent peptide bonds or linkages.
A peptide bond are formed when amino group of an
amino acid combines with the carboxyl group of another.
The conformation of polypeptide chain by twisting or folding is referred to as secondary structure.
Two types of secondary structures α-helix and β-sheet are mainly identified.
α-Helical structure was proposed by Pauling and Corey in 1951.
It occurs when the sequence of amino acids are linked by hydrogen bonds.
Each turn of α-helix contains 3.6 amino acids.
β-pleated sheets are composed of two or more segments of fully extended peptide chains.
β-Sheets may be arranged either in parallel or anti-parallel direction.
Many globular proteins contain combinations of α-helix and β-pleated sheet secondary structure, these patterns are called supersecondary structures also called motifs.
The three dimensional arrangement of protein structure is referred to as tertiary structure.
It is a compact structure with hydrophobic side chains held interior while the hydrophilic groups are on the surface.
This type of arrangement provide stability of the molecule.
Besides the H-bongs, disulfide bonds, ionic interactions, hydrophobic interactions also contribute to the tertiary structure.
Amino acisd structure
Peptide bond formation
Analysis of protein Structure- X-ray Crystallography
Different structural levels of proteins with examples.
Importance of protein structure
Creutzfeldt-Jacob-Disease due to changes in normal protein conformation.
Proteins are the macromolecules responsible for the biological processes in the cell. They consist at their most basic level of a chain of amino acids, determined by the sequence of nucleotides in a gene. Depending on the amino acid sequence (different amino acids have different biochemical properties) and interactions with their environment, proteins fold into a three-dimensional structure, which allows them to interact with other proteins and molecules and perform their function
Structure of protiens and the applied aspectsMohit Adhikary
The slides explain the structures of proteins, the bond stabilizing the structure of amino acids, the different types of protein structures, the applied aspects and the newer advances in the protein structure.
protein chemistry, Biochemistry
the different level of organisation of the protein .
detail on individual structure and the bonds stabilising the structure of the protein.
Describes the structural organisation of proteins with example and its determination, interrelationship b/w structure and function of proteins, also biologically important peptides is covered.
by Dr. N. Sivaranjani, MD
Origin of Word ‘Protein’, Bonds responsible for protein structure, DIFFERENT STRUCTURE OF A PROTEIN, SECONDARY STRUCTURE OF A PROTEIN, TERTIARY STRUCTURE OF A PROTEIN, PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS, Classification of proteins, Nutritional classification of protein, Function of proteins, CLINICAL ASPECT
Amino acisd structure
Peptide bond formation
Analysis of protein Structure- X-ray Crystallography
Different structural levels of proteins with examples.
Importance of protein structure
Creutzfeldt-Jacob-Disease due to changes in normal protein conformation.
Proteins are the macromolecules responsible for the biological processes in the cell. They consist at their most basic level of a chain of amino acids, determined by the sequence of nucleotides in a gene. Depending on the amino acid sequence (different amino acids have different biochemical properties) and interactions with their environment, proteins fold into a three-dimensional structure, which allows them to interact with other proteins and molecules and perform their function
Structure of protiens and the applied aspectsMohit Adhikary
The slides explain the structures of proteins, the bond stabilizing the structure of amino acids, the different types of protein structures, the applied aspects and the newer advances in the protein structure.
protein chemistry, Biochemistry
the different level of organisation of the protein .
detail on individual structure and the bonds stabilising the structure of the protein.
Describes the structural organisation of proteins with example and its determination, interrelationship b/w structure and function of proteins, also biologically important peptides is covered.
by Dr. N. Sivaranjani, MD
Origin of Word ‘Protein’, Bonds responsible for protein structure, DIFFERENT STRUCTURE OF A PROTEIN, SECONDARY STRUCTURE OF A PROTEIN, TERTIARY STRUCTURE OF A PROTEIN, PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS, Classification of proteins, Nutritional classification of protein, Function of proteins, CLINICAL ASPECT
Protein structures, Detail about protein dystrophin DMD and BMD primary structures, secondary structures, tertiary structures, Quaternary structures, functions of proteins ,
different sub types of protein structures, dystropins proteins structures , locations of it in chromosomes, chromosomal abnormalities, facts of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
This is a powerPoint presentation on Levels of Protein Structure.
The transfer of information from DNA to RNA and from RNA to Protein is known as central dogma.
The Proteins are central to all biological activity.
In the process of transcription the individual amino acids are joined together by different RNAs to form an chain of polypeptides. this chain in its native form is not functional. The polypeptide chain must be folded into a three dimensional structure to be functional.
This presentation describes the the different levels of protein structure formed while folding pf protein.
This includes
1)Primary structure: Which is basically the chain of amino acids.
2)Secondary structure: Which includes alpha helix and beta plated sheets.
3)Tertiary structure:
Describing the different types of bonds that exists in the tertiary structure.
4)Quaternary structure: Describes the three dimensional functional structure of a protein.
Tuberculosis- causative agent
Anti-Tubercular Agents- definition, classification
[Study of the following category of medicinal compounds with respect classification, chemical name, chemical structure (compounds with * mark), uses, stability and storage conditions, different types of formulation & their popular brand names]
INH*,
Ethambutol,
Para Amino Salicylic Acid,
Pyrazinamide,
Rifampicin,
Bedaquiline,
Delamanid,
Pretomanid*
Urinary Tract Anti-Infective Agents: Definition, Classification
[Study of the following category of medicinal compounds with respect classification, chemical name, chemical structure (compounds with * mark), uses, stability and storage conditions, different types of formulation & their popular brand names]
Norfloxacin
Ciprofloxacin,
Ofloxacin*,
Moxifloxacin,
Hypoglycemic agents : Definition,
Diabetes mellitus- definition, types
[Study of the following category of medicinal compounds with respect classification, chemical name, chemical structure (compounds with * mark), uses, stability and storage conditions, different types of formulation & their popular brand names]
Insulin and Its Preparations, structure & types
Metformin*,
Glibenclamide*,
Glimepiride,
Pioglitazone,
Repaglinide,
Gliflozins,
Gliptins
Diuretics: Definition, Classification, Types of Edema
(Study of the following category of medicinal compounds with respect classification, chemical name, chemical structure (compounds with * mark), uses, stability and storage conditions, different types of formulation & their popular brand names)
Acetazolamide,
Frusemide*,
Bumetanide,
Chlorthalidone,
Benzthiazide,
Metolazone,
Xipamide,
Spironolactone
1)Arrhythmia- definition, types
2) Anti-Arrhythmic Drugs:
[Study of the following category of medicinal compounds classification, chemical name, chemical structure (compounds with * mark) uses, stability and storage conditions, different types of formulation & their popular brand names]
Quinidine Sulphate, Procainamide Hydrochloride, Verapamil, Phenytoin Sodium*, Lidocaine Hydrochloride, Lorcainide Hydrochloride, Amiodarone and Sotalol
BP- Definition
3) Ranges of BP
4) Hypertension –Definition, classification
5) Anti-Hypertensive Agents: –Definition,
[Study of the following category of medicinal compounds classification, chemical name, chemical structure (compounds with * mark) uses, stability and storage conditions, different types of formulation & their popular brand names]
Propranolol*, Captopril*, Ramipril, Methyldopate Hydrochloride,Clonidine Hydrochloride, Hydralazine Hydrochloride, Nifedipine
6)Angina Pectoris-Definition
7) Anti-anginal Agents: Definition, Classification
[Study of the following category of medicinal compounds classification, chemical name, chemical structure (compounds with* mark) uses, stability and storage conditions, different types of formulation & their popular brand names]
Isosorbide Dinitrate
Sympathetic System- Introduction, Definition, Classification, Receptor (with its types & location & action), neurotransmittor present in it.
[Classification, chemical name, chemical structure (of compounds with * mark), uses, stability and storage conditions, different types of formulation & their popular brand names of all the drug mentioned below]
A)Sympathomimetic Agents:
1. Direct Acting: Nor Epinephrine*, Epinephrine, Phenylephrine, Dopamine*, Terbutaline, Salbutamol (Albuterol), Naphazoline*, Tetrahydrozoline.
2. Indirect Acting Agents: Hydroxy Amphetamine, Pseudoephedrine.
3. Agents With Mixed Mechanism: Ephedrine, Metaraminol
B) Adrenergic Antagonists:
1.Alpha Adrenergic Blockers: Tolazoline, Phentolamine, Phenoxybenzamine, Prazosin.
2. Beta Adrenergic Blockers: Propranolol *, Atenolol *, Carvedilol
Cholinergic System- Introduction, Definition, Classification, Receptor (with its types & location & action), neurotransmittor present in it, Cholinesterase & its general introduction & action.
A) Cholinergic Drugs and Related Agents: Classification, chemical name, chemical structure (of compounds with * mark), uses, stability and storage conditions, different types of formulation & their popular brand names)
1. Direct Acting Agents: Acetylcholine*, Carbachol, And Pilocarpine,
2. Cholinesterase Inhibitors:
Neostigmine*, Edrophonium Chloride, Tacrine Hydrochloride, Pralidoxime Chloride, Echothiopate lodide
CNS-Definition, Classification, Different classes of drug acting on CNS
General Anesthetic- Definition, Stages of anesthesia, Classification
Anesthetic drug- Thiopentone sodium, Ketamine, Propofol detailed study
Impurities in pharmaceutical substancesShaliniBarad
Impurities definition
Sources of impurities
Effect/ type of impurities
Limit test definition
Limit test Importance,
Principle & procedure of Limit test for iron, chloride, sulphate, arsenic & heavy metals.
Blood & Tissue definition, Blood component, Blood cell- types, Formation, Diseases related to it, Urine normal & abnormal Component, Various pathological condition like hematuria, glycosuria, albinonurea, etc.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
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A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
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How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
3. a) Peptide bond:
AA in protein are joined by peptide bond.
The Alpha carboxyl & alpha amino group of
different amino acid codense together to form
peptide bond
During this reaction H2O (water ) molecule is
removed.
4. b) Disulphide bond:
-Disulphide bond are formed by covalent interaction
of the sulpha hydril (-SH) group of two cysteine
residues of a peptide.
-The disulphide chain may be interchain or intrachain.
5.
6. 2. Non-Covalent Interaction:
⚫ These are required for the building up of a protein
structure.
a) Hydrogen bond: The oxygen atom of a carbonyl,
hydroxyl, & carboxyl group forms weak electrostatic
bond with the hydrogen atom of an amide or amino
group
9. c) Hydrophobic bonds:
- Non polar amino acid shoe this type of
interaction.
- Non polar amino acid come close to each
other & form a bond.
-This interaction take place in the inner
region of the protein.
10. • Protein:
• Proteins are naturally occurring nitrogen
containing complex substance that consist of large
number of α amino acid residues joined by peptide
linkage (CO-NH) found in all living system.
• Function:
1. Some proteins act as hormones and hence regulate various
metabolic process e.g. insulin is responsible for
maintaining blood sugar level, hormones receptor, etc.
2. Some proteins act as catalyst for biological reaction.
3. Nucleoproteins act as carrier of genetic characters.
4. Proteins are responsible for transportation of metabolite or
gases (like oxygen, CO2
) are called transport protein.
11. 5. Some blood proteins help to form antibodies
which provide resistance to disease so called as
antibodies or defense proteins.
6. Protein Which are required to give strength to cell
or tissues called structural protein viz collagen in
connective tissue, keratin in hair.
7. Protein which are required to carry out
mechanical work are called muscle protein. ]
8. Plasma protein maintains blood volume.
9. Protein like thrombin, fibrogen, & other protein
factor are involved in blood coagulation.
10. Various proteins forms complement system &
other protein factors are involved in blood
coagulation.
13. A) According to their shape:
i)Fibrous protein
ii)Globular protein
B) According to their chemical nature/
Composition
i)Simple protein
1. Protamines
2. Histones
3. Albumins
4. Globolins
5. Epidermal protein
6. Scleroprotein
15. A) According to their shape:
i)Fibrous protein:
They are long fibers of linear molecules that are
arranged parallel to fiber axis.
They are insoluble in water.
Eg: Hair, Nail, Bones, Horns, etc
ii)Globular protein:
They are spherical or ovoid in shape.
They are highly branched & cross linked in
structure.
They are soluble in water.
Eg: Hormones, Haemogobin
16. B) According to their chemical nature/
Composition
i)Simple protein:
These contain only amino acid residues & no other intimately
bound material.
They are further classified according to solubility:
1) Protamines: they are very basic low molecular weight (3000 to
10000). They contain high proportion of arginine. They are not
heat coagulable.
2) Histones: They are basic proteinwith high molecular weight
than protamin, & have high contain of arginie, lysine, &
histidine. They are heat coagulable.
17. 3.Albumin & globulin: These are globular protein.
Found in all cells. These class includes the
plasma protein, enzymes & hormones
4. Epidemal protein: these are the protein of the
skin, hair, nails have a high cystein content. They
have cross linking of polypeptide chain by s-s-
bridges.
• 5) Scleroprotein:
these are coonective protein such as collagen,
elastin , etc
18. • Ii) Conjugated protein:
• These contain in addition to polypeptide chains,
other substances or group which impart
characteristic properties. These non amino acis
components are called as prosthetic groups. These
include:
1)Nucleoprotein: these are formed by combination
of histone or protamine with ribonucleic acid or
deoxyribonucleic acid.
2) Chromoprotein: they are generally soluble
proteins combined with chromophoric (coloured )
group.
• This group is haem (haemoglobin) , Riboflavin
(flavoprotein)
19. 3)Glycoprotein: These consist of amino sugars,
sugar acid & sulphate
4)Lipoprotein : it is the combination of protein &
lipids.
• These are found in cell membrane, plasma, brain
5) Phosphoprotein:
They are either ortho or pyro phosphate or
phosphodiesters. Eg: milk casein is a globulin
protein containing about 1% of phosphorous &
pepsin contain one atom of phosphorous.
5)Metalloprotein:
• Various metals are attached to simple protein
20. C) Derived Proteins: Contain products obtained on
hydrolysis of simple & conjugated protein.
⚫ i) Primary derived protein:
-They are the denatured or coagulated or first
hydrolysed products of protein.
⚫ Ii)Secondary derived protein:
-They are degraded (due to breakdown of peptide
bonds) product of proteins.
21.
22. ⚫ Also classified on basis of nutritional value:
1.Incomplete protein: protein not containing all
essential amino acid. Eg: gelatin , zein of maize
2.Complete protein: protein which contain all
essential amino acid in required quantities are
called complete protein . Eg: milk protein & egg
protein.
23. Structure of Proteins
A. Primary structure of Protein
B. Secondary Structure of Protein
C. Tertiary Structure of Protein
D. Quaternary structure of Protein
24. A)Primary Structure of Protein:
⚫ Each protein has the characteristic sequence of amino
acid.
⚫ Primary structure of protein includes the amino acid
sequence which are linked together by peptide bond.
⚫ They are formed by the aa linked by carboxyl group
(-COOH) of one amino acid with amino group of
another amino acid.
25.
26.
27. B) Secondary structure of Protein:
⚫ The secondary structure is formed by hydrogen bonds
between carbonyl and amino groups that make up the
polypeptide backbone and causes the molecule to either
bend and fold (beta pleated sheet) or spiral around
(helicase).
⚫ These folding are essential for functional activity of protein
which are brought about by hydrogen bonding or
disulphide bonding between neighboring amide &
carboxyl group.
⚫ Secondary structure deals with the shape of peptide chain
i.e. linear, cyclic, branched or arranged in the form of helix.
⚫ In protein molecule polypeptide is present in different
geometric arrangement called folding.
28. ⚫ It is essential for the functional activity of the protein.
⚫ Based on nature of hydrogen bonding there are two types:
⚫ (i) α- helix (α- helical)
⚫ (ii) β-pleated sheet
i) α- helix (α- helical)
⚫ The α helical is the most common spiral structure of
protein.
⚫ It has a rigid arrangement of polypeptide chain.
⚫ Each turn coil carries 3.6 aa residue & each aa residue is
placed 0.15nm from the next.
⚫ The α - helical structure depends on the intramolecular
hydrogen bonding between NH and C=0 group of peptide
bond, in the α - helix the polypeptide is folded in such a
way that the C=O of each amino acid residue is hydrogen
bonded to the NH of 4th amino acid residue along the
chain. Eg: Keratin
29.
30. ⚫ (ii) β-pleated sheet: It is another form of
secondary structure, this result from hydrogen
bonding between two peptide chains.
⚫ It may occur in two types
⚫ a) Parallel pleated sheet:
⚫ In this type of structure the polypeptide chain is
side by side and in the same direction so that
N-terminal residues are on the same end.
⚫ This pleated sheet confirmation is stabilized by
hydrogen bonding, here bonds are formed
between NH group of a peptide in one chain and
C=O group of a neighboring chain.
31. ⚫ b) anti- parallel pleated sheet-
⚫ In this type of structure the polypeptide chain lie
in opposite direction so that N-terminal end of one
and C- terminal of the other, face each other.
⚫ In this structure the polypeptide chains are held
together by hydrogen bonds, so as to give a sheet
like structure and hence are called as β –pleated
sheet confirmation.
34. C) Tertiary structure of Protein:
⚫ It is three dimensional folding of the chain stabilized
by the interaction between distant part of the
sequence.
⚫ Long polypeptide chain is very tightly folded in to a
compact form.
⚫ This folding results from interaction of R groups of
side chain of amino acid.
⚫ The interaction are : a)Hydrogen bonds
b) Hydrophobic bonds
c) Ionic bonds
35. D)Quaternary Structure of protein:
⚫ The protein which contain two or more polypeptides
held together by non-covalent interaction.
⚫ They are called quaternary protein.
⚫ Eg: Haemoglobin (it contain 2α & 2β polypeptide
chain)
36. ⚫ Peptides
⚫ A peptide is the condensation product of two or more
aa; wherein two aa , the α amino group of one amino
acid is condensed with the α carboxyl group of the
another.
⚫ Eg: Condensation of Glycine with alanine
Glycylalanine (dipeptide)
37. ⚫ Polypeptide: These are the compounds which contain
20 to 50 amino acid.
⚫ Biological importance of peptide & polypeptide:
1. Insulin is a peptide which plays an important role in
glucose metabolism.
2. Valinomycin & gramicidin are peptides useful as
antibiotics.
3. Bleomycin, a peptide is antitumor agent.
4. Bradykinin is a polypeptide used as smooth muscle
hypotensive agent.
38. ⚫ Denaturation of Protein:
The disruption of native structure of protein which causes changes in
properties of protein & loss of biological activity is called as
Denaturation of protein.
Denaturation of proteins involves the disruption and possible
destruction of both the secondary and tertiary structures.
Since denaturation reactions are not strong enough to break the peptide
bonds, the primary structure remains the same after a denaturation
process.
Agents causing denaturation
1. Physical agents: Temperature, Cooling
2. Chemical gents: Acetic acid, Sulfosalicyclic acid, X ray, Organic
solvents
Changes after denaturation
a) Loss of biological activity
b) Change in surface tension
c) Changes in solubility
d) Destruction of secondary and tertiary structures
• E.g . Boiled eggs become hard, skin formed on curdled milk
39. ⚫ Protein related Diseases:
1) Protein deficiency disease
2)Protein metabolic disorder
1) Protein deficiency diseases:
a) Marasmus- Seen in infants
b) Kwashiorkar- Seen in children between the ages of 1-4yrs
c) Nutritional Edema- Seen in elders
a)Marasmus
1. Deficiency disease of infants below 1 year
2. More likely to occur in poor people
3. Most important cause is early stoppage of breast feeding
Symptoms: Results in growth retardation, muscle wasting,
anaemia, hair pigmentation, vomiting & diarrhoea.
1. No edema observed
40. • Treatment:
1. Mother’s milk,
2. Diet rich in calories, proteins & other nutritional factors.
b) Kwashiorkar:
⚫ The qualitative & quantitative deficiency of protein result
in the disease.
• Predominantly found in children between 1-4 years of age
Causes:
1. Large family size,
2. poor maternal health,
3. over diluted milk,
4. Delayed supplementary feeding
5. Premature termination of breast feeding
42. • Treatment: diet rich in proteins, milk, eggs,
soyabeans (richest source of complete protein)
c)Nutritional edema:
• Usually seen in famine areas
• Results from long, continued deprivation of
proteins
• Symptoms: Weight loss, reduced subcutaneous
fat, anemia, greater susceptibility to infections,
frequent loose stools, lethargy, edema.
• Treatment: Protein rich diet, milk, eggs, soyabean
43. 2.Protein metabolis disorder:
A) Phenylketonuria:
⚫ The disease or inborn error of metabolism which
result due to absence of phenylalanine hydroxylase
which convert phenylalanine Tyrosine is
called as phenylketouria.
⚫ So their will be accumulation of phenylalanine in
body fluid.
⚫ Due to this their will be alternate pathway of
phenylalanine which forms phenylpyruvate,
phenylacetate, phenylactate.
⚫ All these alternate products are excreted in urine
44. ⚫ Symptoms:
1. Mental retardation
2. Seizures
3. Psychosis
4. Eczema
⚫ Treatment:
1. Early diagnosis after birth
2. Strict intake of phenylalanine is effective preventive
measures
45. B) Alkaptonuria:
⚫ The inherited metabolic disorder found in infant
which result due to absence of an enzyme
homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase is called as
alkaptonuria.
⚫ Homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase is responsible for
the breakdown of homogentisate an intermediate
in phenylalanine & tyrosine pathway.
⚫ It causes accumulation of homogentisate as it
breakdown is blocked & is excreted in urine.
⚫ Due to this urine becomes black on standing
because of oxidation of homogentisate with air.
46. c)Maple syrup urine disease:
⚫ It is called as branched chain ketoaciduria.
⚫ The diseases which is caused due to absence or highly
reduced activity of branched chain
α-ketodehydrogenase complex is called as Maple syrup
urine disease.
⚫ The enzyme α-ketoacid dehydrogenase coplex
catalyses conversion of 3 branched chain amino acid.
Eg: leucine, isoleucine, valine.
⚫ As a result these amino acid accumulate in the blood &
excrete in urine.
47. ⚫ Symptoms:
1. Burnt sugar odour of urine
2. Difficult to feed
3. Vomiting
4. Lethargy, extensive brain damage.
⚫ Treatment:
1. This disease is usually fatal, patient is placed on diet in
which protein is supplied by a mixture of amino acid
except leucine, isoleucine, & valine
48. Imp Questions
1.Enlist structure of protein? Explain secondary structure
of protein?
2.Enlist protein deficiency disease & explain Maple
syrup urine disease?
3.Explain Phenylketonurea metabolic Disorder?
4. Explain denaturation of protein?
5. Define protein & give its classification?
6. Define protein & give its biological function/ Role?
7. Draw the structure of following amino acid:
⚫ i) essential amino acid(any four)
⚫ Ii)optically inactive amino acid
49. ⚫ Iii)sulphur containing amino acid
⚫ Iv) Aromatic amino acid
⚫ V)acidic amino acid
⚫ vI)basic amino acid
⚫ Vii)polar amino acid (any four)
⚫ Viii)hydroxyl group containg amino acid
8. Explain the following test: ninhydrin test
FNDB test, Dansyl test, Pheylisothiocynate test,
Xanthoproteic test, glcoxylic test, Sakaguchi test
50. 9. Explain acid base behavior of amino acid/ isoelectric
pH/ Zwitter ion ?
10.Write a note on Protein deficiency disease.