Protein synthesis ribosome
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This document discusses various aspects of protein synthesis including the coupling of assembly with transcription and prerRNA processing in eukaryotes. It also covers topics such as prokaryotic and eukaryotic translation initiation, recycling of EF-Tu, regulation of gene expression through RNA processing, mRNA, 5'CAP, active enzymes, post-translational modification, RNA degradation, protein degradation, and regulation of globin gene translation by heme.
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4.3 Transcription and Translation
DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) which is then translated into a polypeptide chain. Transcription occurs when RNA polymerase uses a DNA template to produce mRNA that has the same base sequence except uracil replaces thymine. Translation uses the mRNA's codon sequence to assemble amino acids into a polypeptide based on the genetic code where each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid. Non-coding introns are spliced out of pre-mRNA leaving just the protein-coding exons to be translated.
Histidine operon
The document summarizes the histidine operon and its regulation in the bacterium Salmonella typhimurium. The histidine operon contains 9 structural genes that are transcribed into a single mRNA. It is regulated by both feedback inhibition and attenuation control. In feedback inhibition, high intracellular histidine levels lead to feedback inhibition of the biosynthetic pathway. In attenuation control, the level of charged histidyl-tRNA determines whether transcription terminates or the structural genes are expressed. When histidyl-tRNA levels are high, transcription terminates. When levels are low, the ribosome pauses and anti-termination occurs, allowing expression of the structural genes.
Histidine Operon
The histidine operon in Salmonella typhimurium controls histidine biosynthesis through two mechanisms: feedback inhibition and repression control. The operon contains 9 genes encoding enzymes for histidine biosynthesis arranged in a single polycistronic mRNA. Transcription of the operon is regulated by attenuation, which is modulated by the intracellular levels of charged histidyl tRNA. When histidyl tRNA levels are high, transcription terminates prematurely. When levels are low, transcription proceeds through an anti-termination mechanism. This provides a way for the bacteria to efficiently regulate histidine production based on external availability and growth rate.
Translation (genetics)
Translation converts mRNA into a protein through a multi-step process. The mRNA code is read in triplets and each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid. tRNAs carry amino acids and bind to ribosomes along with mRNA. The ribosome facilitates the chain of amino acids. Translation involves activation, initiation, elongation and termination. Initiation requires assembly of the translation complex on mRNA including ribosomal subunits, initiator tRNA and factors. Ongoing research supports the theory that excess protein translation contributes to autism by showing dampening an overabundant protein reverses social deficits in mouse models.
Tryptophan operon
The tryptophan operon regulates the biosynthesis of tryptophan in E. coli through transcriptional attenuation and repression. It contains five genes encoding the enzymes needed to synthesize tryptophan. When tryptophan levels are high, the tryptophan repressor binds to the operator site, preventing transcription. Additionally, a regulatory region can form a terminator stem-loop structure to halt transcription if tryptophan tRNA levels are high during translation of the leader mRNA sequence. However, if tryptophan levels are low, the terminator structure does not form and transcription of the operon proceeds.
Gene expression,Regulation of gene expression by dr.Tasnim
This document discusses gene expression and its regulation. It defines gene expression as the process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize a functional product, often protein or RNA. Gene expression is regulated at multiple levels, including transcription, RNA processing, and protein utilization. The document provides details on the lac operon in E. coli as an example of prokaryotic gene regulation and compares differences in eukaryotic and prokaryotic gene expression mechanisms.
Regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes
This document summarizes gene regulation in eukaryotes. It discusses how gene expression is regulated at multiple levels, including transcription, RNA processing, and intracellular/intercellular signaling. Key points include: (1) Gene expression is controlled by transcription factors binding to promoter and enhancer regions; (2) Eukaryotic gene expression involves RNA splicing and alternative splicing of exons; and (3) The Britten-Davidson model proposes that sensor genes control integrator genes which regulate sets of producer genes in response to signals.
Trp operon
The tryptophan operon is a negatively induced operon in E. coli that is regulated by the presence of tryptophan. It contains structural genes that code for enzymes involved in tryptophan biosynthesis. In low tryptophan conditions, transcriptional attenuation allows the transcription of the structural genes. In high tryptophan conditions, transcriptional attenuation terminates transcription before the structural genes. The mechanism involves the formation of alternative stem loop RNA structures and stalling of ribosomes in the leader region.
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4.3 Transcription and Translation
DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) which is then translated into a polypeptide chain. Transcription occurs when RNA polymerase uses a DNA template to produce mRNA that has the same base sequence except uracil replaces thymine. Translation uses the mRNA's codon sequence to assemble amino acids into a polypeptide based on the genetic code where each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid. Non-coding introns are spliced out of pre-mRNA leaving just the protein-coding exons to be translated.
Histidine operon
The document summarizes the histidine operon and its regulation in the bacterium Salmonella typhimurium. The histidine operon contains 9 structural genes that are transcribed into a single mRNA. It is regulated by both feedback inhibition and attenuation control. In feedback inhibition, high intracellular histidine levels lead to feedback inhibition of the biosynthetic pathway. In attenuation control, the level of charged histidyl-tRNA determines whether transcription terminates or the structural genes are expressed. When histidyl-tRNA levels are high, transcription terminates. When levels are low, the ribosome pauses and anti-termination occurs, allowing expression of the structural genes.
Histidine Operon
The histidine operon in Salmonella typhimurium controls histidine biosynthesis through two mechanisms: feedback inhibition and repression control. The operon contains 9 genes encoding enzymes for histidine biosynthesis arranged in a single polycistronic mRNA. Transcription of the operon is regulated by attenuation, which is modulated by the intracellular levels of charged histidyl tRNA. When histidyl tRNA levels are high, transcription terminates prematurely. When levels are low, transcription proceeds through an anti-termination mechanism. This provides a way for the bacteria to efficiently regulate histidine production based on external availability and growth rate.
Translation (genetics)
Translation converts mRNA into a protein through a multi-step process. The mRNA code is read in triplets and each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid. tRNAs carry amino acids and bind to ribosomes along with mRNA. The ribosome facilitates the chain of amino acids. Translation involves activation, initiation, elongation and termination. Initiation requires assembly of the translation complex on mRNA including ribosomal subunits, initiator tRNA and factors. Ongoing research supports the theory that excess protein translation contributes to autism by showing dampening an overabundant protein reverses social deficits in mouse models.
Tryptophan operon
The tryptophan operon regulates the biosynthesis of tryptophan in E. coli through transcriptional attenuation and repression. It contains five genes encoding the enzymes needed to synthesize tryptophan. When tryptophan levels are high, the tryptophan repressor binds to the operator site, preventing transcription. Additionally, a regulatory region can form a terminator stem-loop structure to halt transcription if tryptophan tRNA levels are high during translation of the leader mRNA sequence. However, if tryptophan levels are low, the terminator structure does not form and transcription of the operon proceeds.
Gene expression,Regulation of gene expression by dr.Tasnim
This document discusses gene expression and its regulation. It defines gene expression as the process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize a functional product, often protein or RNA. Gene expression is regulated at multiple levels, including transcription, RNA processing, and protein utilization. The document provides details on the lac operon in E. coli as an example of prokaryotic gene regulation and compares differences in eukaryotic and prokaryotic gene expression mechanisms.
Regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes
This document summarizes gene regulation in eukaryotes. It discusses how gene expression is regulated at multiple levels, including transcription, RNA processing, and intracellular/intercellular signaling. Key points include: (1) Gene expression is controlled by transcription factors binding to promoter and enhancer regions; (2) Eukaryotic gene expression involves RNA splicing and alternative splicing of exons; and (3) The Britten-Davidson model proposes that sensor genes control integrator genes which regulate sets of producer genes in response to signals.
Trp operon
The tryptophan operon is a negatively induced operon in E. coli that is regulated by the presence of tryptophan. It contains structural genes that code for enzymes involved in tryptophan biosynthesis. In low tryptophan conditions, transcriptional attenuation allows the transcription of the structural genes. In high tryptophan conditions, transcriptional attenuation terminates transcription before the structural genes. The mechanism involves the formation of alternative stem loop RNA structures and stalling of ribosomes in the leader region.
Gene expression in_prokaryotes
can you exchange gene expression in eukaryotes.If not never mind,let it be next time.
Dr. Anil Batta
Transcription in prokaryotes
transcription process synthesized ssRNA in prokaryotes, RNA polymerase and promoter of prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Translational proofreading and translational inhibitors
Translation proofreading is often the final stage of a translation process.
Transcription creates a complementary RNA copy of a DNA sequence and translation is the subsequent process where RNA is used to synthesize the actual protein from amino acids. Inhibition of this translation step has the effect of blocking protein production and ultimately its function.
Prokaryotic gene regulation
There are two main mechanisms of transcriptional control of gene expression in prokaryotes: 1) Operons, where genes involved in a metabolic pathway are clustered under common regulatory sequences and proteins, allowing synchronized expression. 2) Cascades of gene expression, where expression of one gene set can activate expression of another gene set. The lactose and tryptophan operons are examples that demonstrate negative and positive regulation of gene expression through repressors, inducers, and feedback loops in response to environmental conditions.
Cytogenetics DNA Translation
Translation
A process by which the genetic code contained within a messenger RNA (mRNA)
the molecule is decoded to produce a specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
chain.
Transcriptional repressors ppt Repressor proteins involved in transcription
This document summarizes transcriptional repressor proteins. It discusses how repressors inhibit gene expression by binding to DNA or RNA. There are two main types of repressors - DNA-binding repressors that block RNA polymerase attachment, and RNA-binding repressors that prevent protein translation. Repressors can be passive and compete for binding sites, or active with intrinsic repression activity targeting chromatin. Examples given are the lac and trp operon repressors in prokaryotes. Co-repressors are discussed as molecules that bind and activate repressor function.
Gene expression in prokaryotes
The document summarizes gene expression in prokaryotes. It discusses how prokaryotic genes are organized into operons that are regulated coordinately. It provides examples of the lac and trp operons. The lac operon encodes enzymes for lactose metabolism and is induced by lactose. The trp operon encodes enzymes for tryptophan synthesis and is repressed by tryptophan through binding of the trp repressor to the operator. Both operons utilize repressors and operators to control transcription in response to substrates or end products.
Transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from DNA and involves four main stages - initiation, elongation, termination, and post-transcription processing. It occurs differently in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, transcription and translation are coupled and occur in the cytoplasm, while in eukaryotes transcription occurs separately in the nucleus. The document provides details on the mechanisms and factors involved in each stage of transcription for both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Hoofdstuk 18 2008 deel 1
The document summarizes regulation of gene expression in bacteria and eukaryotes. It discusses the trp and lac operons in bacteria, which regulate gene expression in response to tryptophan and lactose levels. In eukaryotes, gene expression is controlled by chromatin structure, transcription factors that bind enhancers and recruit RNA polymerase, and post-transcriptional processing of transcripts.
Protien
The document discusses various aspects of protein synthesis, including the mechanism of initiation, elongation, and termination in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. It also covers topics like translational control, post-translational modifications, protein targeting, and degradation. Protein synthesis requires codon-anticodon interactions and several initiation, elongation, and termination factors that facilitate the assembly of the ribosome and movement along the mRNA during translation. A major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is the initiation process, which involves mRNA scanning and multiple eukaryotic initiation factors.
Gene expression slide
This is a mini-research work presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of a masters degree in Biochemistry, University of Ibadan.
Regulation of gene expression
CONCEPT ON GENE EXPRESSION, GENE THEORY, STAGES IN PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES, TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION...
Gene regulation in eukaryotes
Eukaryotic gene expression is regulated at multiple levels, including the genome, transcription, RNA processing, translation, and post-translation. Regulation occurs through various mechanisms such as histone modifications, DNA methylation, transcription factors, RNA processing, translation initiation factors, microRNAs, protein folding, and post-translational modifications. Gene regulation in eukaryotes allows for greater control of protein synthesis than in prokaryotes through the use of transcription factors, enhancers, silencers, and other mechanisms.
Trp operon
The document discusses the tryptophan (trp) operon in bacteria. The trp operon contains five structural genes that encode enzymes for tryptophan biosynthesis. Expression of the structural genes is regulated by a trp promoter, operator sequence, and repressor protein. In the absence of tryptophan, the repressor cannot bind to the operator and the structural genes are transcribed. However, in the presence of tryptophan, it binds to the repressor and prevents transcription of the structural genes. The trp operon is also regulated by attenuation - a mechanism where tryptophan availability affects the formation of transcription terminator stem loops in the mRNA leader sequence.
Control of gene expression ppt
Control of gene expression ppt
definition of gene expression
inducible gene expression
repressible gene expression
control of gene expression in eukaryotics .all the in information about this topic is include .
Gene regulation in prokaryotes
Most bacteria are free-living organisms that grow by increasing
in mass and then divide by binary fission.
Growth and division are controlled by genes, the expression
of which must be regulated appropriately. Genes
whose activity is controlled in response to the needs of a
cell or organism are called regulated genes. All organisms
also have a large number of genes whose products
are essential to the normal functioning of a growing and
dividing cell, no matter what the conditions are. These
genes are always active in growing cells and are known as
constitutive genes or housekeeping genes; examples include
genes that code for the enzymes needed for protein
synthesis and glucose metabolism. Note that all genes are
regulated on some level. If normal cell function is impaired
for some reason, the expression of all genes, including
constitutive genes, is reduced by regulatory
mechanisms. Thus, the distinction between regulated
and constitutive genes is somewhat arbitrary.
Lac operon slide
Gene regulation can be defined as any kind of alteration in the gene to give rise to a different expression which might result in a change in the synthesized amino acid sequence.”
Gene expression is basically the synthesis of the polypeptide chain encoded by a particular gene.
Therefore the expression of the gene can be quantified in terms of the amount of protein synthesised by the genes.
Translation(molecular biology)
description of translation in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and the components required for translation and also co translation tranlocation,post translation translocation and also inhibitors of translation in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Control of gene expression
Definition, Principle, gene expression in eukaryotes, levels of gene control, genes and regulatory elements, Operon system
Ap Chap 18 Pp
1) Gene expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes is regulated in response to environmental changes through various mechanisms at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels.
2) In bacteria, operons control transcription of clusters of genes in response to stimuli like small molecules. Repressible and inducible operons use allosteric effectors to turn transcription on or off.
3) In eukaryotes, gene expression is controlled through chromatin modifications, transcription factors, RNA processing, and noncoding RNAs that regulate mRNA translation and chromatin structure. Cancer results from genetic changes affecting cell cycle control genes.
E.coli rna polymerase
E. coli RNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides during transcription. It is composed of five subunits - two α subunits, one β subunit, one β' subunit, and one ω subunit. Together with a sigma factor, these subunits form the holoenzyme which is required for transcription initiation by binding to promoter sequences on DNA. The sigma factor recognizes specific promoter sequences and directs the holoenzyme to begin RNA synthesis. E. coli has multiple sigma factors that direct transcription of different genes depending on environmental conditions.
Eukaryotic transcription
Eukaryotic transcription is the elaborate process that eukaryotic cells use to copy genetic information stored in DNA into units of RNA replica.- Source: Wikipedia
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Gene expression in_prokaryotes
can you exchange gene expression in eukaryotes.If not never mind,let it be next time.
Dr. Anil Batta
Transcription in prokaryotes
transcription process synthesized ssRNA in prokaryotes, RNA polymerase and promoter of prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Translational proofreading and translational inhibitors
Translation proofreading is often the final stage of a translation process.
Transcription creates a complementary RNA copy of a DNA sequence and translation is the subsequent process where RNA is used to synthesize the actual protein from amino acids. Inhibition of this translation step has the effect of blocking protein production and ultimately its function.
Prokaryotic gene regulation
There are two main mechanisms of transcriptional control of gene expression in prokaryotes: 1) Operons, where genes involved in a metabolic pathway are clustered under common regulatory sequences and proteins, allowing synchronized expression. 2) Cascades of gene expression, where expression of one gene set can activate expression of another gene set. The lactose and tryptophan operons are examples that demonstrate negative and positive regulation of gene expression through repressors, inducers, and feedback loops in response to environmental conditions.
Cytogenetics DNA Translation
Translation
A process by which the genetic code contained within a messenger RNA (mRNA)
the molecule is decoded to produce a specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
chain.
Transcriptional repressors ppt Repressor proteins involved in transcription
This document summarizes transcriptional repressor proteins. It discusses how repressors inhibit gene expression by binding to DNA or RNA. There are two main types of repressors - DNA-binding repressors that block RNA polymerase attachment, and RNA-binding repressors that prevent protein translation. Repressors can be passive and compete for binding sites, or active with intrinsic repression activity targeting chromatin. Examples given are the lac and trp operon repressors in prokaryotes. Co-repressors are discussed as molecules that bind and activate repressor function.
Gene expression in prokaryotes
The document summarizes gene expression in prokaryotes. It discusses how prokaryotic genes are organized into operons that are regulated coordinately. It provides examples of the lac and trp operons. The lac operon encodes enzymes for lactose metabolism and is induced by lactose. The trp operon encodes enzymes for tryptophan synthesis and is repressed by tryptophan through binding of the trp repressor to the operator. Both operons utilize repressors and operators to control transcription in response to substrates or end products.
Transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from DNA and involves four main stages - initiation, elongation, termination, and post-transcription processing. It occurs differently in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, transcription and translation are coupled and occur in the cytoplasm, while in eukaryotes transcription occurs separately in the nucleus. The document provides details on the mechanisms and factors involved in each stage of transcription for both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Hoofdstuk 18 2008 deel 1
The document summarizes regulation of gene expression in bacteria and eukaryotes. It discusses the trp and lac operons in bacteria, which regulate gene expression in response to tryptophan and lactose levels. In eukaryotes, gene expression is controlled by chromatin structure, transcription factors that bind enhancers and recruit RNA polymerase, and post-transcriptional processing of transcripts.
Protien
The document discusses various aspects of protein synthesis, including the mechanism of initiation, elongation, and termination in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. It also covers topics like translational control, post-translational modifications, protein targeting, and degradation. Protein synthesis requires codon-anticodon interactions and several initiation, elongation, and termination factors that facilitate the assembly of the ribosome and movement along the mRNA during translation. A major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is the initiation process, which involves mRNA scanning and multiple eukaryotic initiation factors.
Gene expression slide
This is a mini-research work presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of a masters degree in Biochemistry, University of Ibadan.
Regulation of gene expression
CONCEPT ON GENE EXPRESSION, GENE THEORY, STAGES IN PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES, TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION...
Gene regulation in eukaryotes
Eukaryotic gene expression is regulated at multiple levels, including the genome, transcription, RNA processing, translation, and post-translation. Regulation occurs through various mechanisms such as histone modifications, DNA methylation, transcription factors, RNA processing, translation initiation factors, microRNAs, protein folding, and post-translational modifications. Gene regulation in eukaryotes allows for greater control of protein synthesis than in prokaryotes through the use of transcription factors, enhancers, silencers, and other mechanisms.
Trp operon
The document discusses the tryptophan (trp) operon in bacteria. The trp operon contains five structural genes that encode enzymes for tryptophan biosynthesis. Expression of the structural genes is regulated by a trp promoter, operator sequence, and repressor protein. In the absence of tryptophan, the repressor cannot bind to the operator and the structural genes are transcribed. However, in the presence of tryptophan, it binds to the repressor and prevents transcription of the structural genes. The trp operon is also regulated by attenuation - a mechanism where tryptophan availability affects the formation of transcription terminator stem loops in the mRNA leader sequence.
Control of gene expression ppt
Control of gene expression ppt
definition of gene expression
inducible gene expression
repressible gene expression
control of gene expression in eukaryotics .all the in information about this topic is include .
Gene regulation in prokaryotes
Most bacteria are free-living organisms that grow by increasing
in mass and then divide by binary fission.
Growth and division are controlled by genes, the expression
of which must be regulated appropriately. Genes
whose activity is controlled in response to the needs of a
cell or organism are called regulated genes. All organisms
also have a large number of genes whose products
are essential to the normal functioning of a growing and
dividing cell, no matter what the conditions are. These
genes are always active in growing cells and are known as
constitutive genes or housekeeping genes; examples include
genes that code for the enzymes needed for protein
synthesis and glucose metabolism. Note that all genes are
regulated on some level. If normal cell function is impaired
for some reason, the expression of all genes, including
constitutive genes, is reduced by regulatory
mechanisms. Thus, the distinction between regulated
and constitutive genes is somewhat arbitrary.
Lac operon slide
Gene regulation can be defined as any kind of alteration in the gene to give rise to a different expression which might result in a change in the synthesized amino acid sequence.”
Gene expression is basically the synthesis of the polypeptide chain encoded by a particular gene.
Therefore the expression of the gene can be quantified in terms of the amount of protein synthesised by the genes.
Translation(molecular biology)
description of translation in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and the components required for translation and also co translation tranlocation,post translation translocation and also inhibitors of translation in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Control of gene expression
Definition, Principle, gene expression in eukaryotes, levels of gene control, genes and regulatory elements, Operon system
Ap Chap 18 Pp
1) Gene expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes is regulated in response to environmental changes through various mechanisms at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels.
2) In bacteria, operons control transcription of clusters of genes in response to stimuli like small molecules. Repressible and inducible operons use allosteric effectors to turn transcription on or off.
3) In eukaryotes, gene expression is controlled through chromatin modifications, transcription factors, RNA processing, and noncoding RNAs that regulate mRNA translation and chromatin structure. Cancer results from genetic changes affecting cell cycle control genes.
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Translational proofreading and translational inhibitors
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E.coli rna polymerase
E. coli RNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides during transcription. It is composed of five subunits - two α subunits, one β subunit, one β' subunit, and one ω subunit. Together with a sigma factor, these subunits form the holoenzyme which is required for transcription initiation by binding to promoter sequences on DNA. The sigma factor recognizes specific promoter sequences and directs the holoenzyme to begin RNA synthesis. E. coli has multiple sigma factors that direct transcription of different genes depending on environmental conditions.
Eukaryotic transcription
Eukaryotic transcription is the elaborate process that eukaryotic cells use to copy genetic information stored in DNA into units of RNA replica.- Source: Wikipedia
Transcription
1. Eukaryotic pre-mRNA undergoes processing after being exported from the nucleus which involves removal of introns, addition of a 5' cap, and 3' polyadenylated tail to produce mature mRNA.
2. The mature mRNA is translated by ribosomes in the cytoplasm. Some viruses utilize cap-independent translation initiation or other mechanisms like leaky scanning, frameshifting, or suppression of termination to express their genes.
3. Interferons induce antiviral responses including RNase L and PKR activation. Viruses have evolved strategies to antagonize PKR such as inhibiting its dsRNA binding, dimerization, or kinase activity to prevent host translation shutoff.
Transcription and the various stages of transcription
Transcription and its stages, the enzymes involved, the steps of transcription, the regulators of transcription, post translation modifications, formation of the types of RNA, applied concept
Protein Synthesis
Proteins are macromolecules built up of amino acid monomers that play key roles in living organisms. DNA contains instructions for producing proteins, but proteins are manufactured by ribosomes in the cell cytoplasm, so a two-stage process called protein synthesis is needed to transfer the DNA instructions. In the first stage, transcription, a messenger RNA molecule is produced from DNA in the nucleus. In the second stage, translation, the mRNA leaves the nucleus and attaches to ribosomes, where amino acids are linked together into a polypeptide chain according to the mRNA's triplet code.
RNA polymerase
RNA polymerase is an enzyme that produces RNA in cells. It was discovered in 1960 and is essential for all organisms. In prokaryotes, a single RNA polymerase synthesizes different RNA types, while eukaryotic RNA polymerase is a multi-subunit enzyme. RNA polymerase I synthesizes rRNA for ribosomes, polymerase II synthesizes pre-mRNA and most snRNA/miRNA, and polymerase III synthesizes tRNA and other small RNAs. The transcription process involves initiation, elongation, and termination stages.
Protein synthesis with turning point
DNA contains genes that code for proteins. Proteins are made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. There are 20 different amino acids. An amino acid chain is called a polypeptide. DNA is found in the nucleus, while proteins are made in the cytoplasm of cells by ribosomes. The process of protein synthesis begins with transcription of DNA into mRNA, which is then translated by ribosomes into a polypeptide chain. There are three main types of RNA involved in protein synthesis: mRNA carries the genetic code to ribosomes, rRNA makes up ribosomes, and tRNA transfers amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain.
Eukaryotic transcription
Eukaryotic transcriptionMarudhar Kesari Jain College for Women Vaniyambadi - 635 751, Tamil Nadu, INDIA.
This document summarizes eukaryotic transcription by RNA polymerases. It discusses the three types of RNA polymerases (I, II, and III) found in eukaryotic cells, what genes each polymerase transcribes, and the basic stages and mechanisms of transcription (initiation, elongation, termination). It also describes the promoters, processing, and other regulatory elements involved in eukaryotic transcription.Presentation Protein Synthesis
This document provides an overview of protein synthesis, including:
1. It describes the process of transcription, where information from DNA is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus.
2. Translation, or protein synthesis, then occurs in the cytoplasm, where the mRNA sequence is read by ribosomes to produce a polypeptide chain based on the genetic code.
3. Protein synthesis involves initiation, elongation through the addition of amino acids guided by tRNAs, and termination when a stop codon is reached.
Protein synthesis
The document summarizes the process of protein synthesis in three main steps: transcription, translation, and termination. During transcription, RNA polymerase makes an mRNA copy of a DNA sequence. Translation then uses the mRNA to assemble a polypeptide chain via tRNAs and ribosomes. Termination occurs when a stop codon signals the release of the completed protein chain. The central dogma of biology is demonstrated as DNA is transcribed to mRNA which is then translated to protein.
Transcription in eukaryotes
The document summarizes transcription in eukaryotes. It discusses that eukaryotes have three RNA polymerases - Pol I, Pol II, and Pol III. Pol II is responsible for transcribing protein-encoding genes and requires general transcription factors for initiation. Transcription involves initiation, elongation, and termination phases. The RNA polymerase forms a pre-initiation complex at the promoter and then adds nucleotides during elongation. Termination occurs after RNA processing and polyadenylation.
Eukaryotic transcription
Transcription in eukaryotes: A brief view
Transcription is the process by which single stranded RNA is synthesized by double stranded DNA. Transcription in eukaryotes and prokaryotes has many similarities while at the same time both showing their individual characteristics due to the differences in organization. RNA Polymerase (RNAP or RNA Pol) is different in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Coupled transcription is seen in prokaryotes but not in Eukaryotes. In eukaryotes the pre-RNA should be spliced first to be translated.
In Eukaryotic transcription, synthesis of RNA occurs in the 3’→5’ direction. The 3’ end is more reactive due to the hydroxide group. 5’ end containing phosphate groups meanwhile, is not very reactive when it comes to adding new nucleotides. In Eukaryotes, the whole genome is not transcribed at once. Only a part of the genome is transcribed which also acts as the first, principle stage of genetic regulation.
Eukaryotes have five nuclear polymerases:
• RNA Polymerase I: This produces rRNA (23S, 5.8S, and 18S) which are the major components in a ribosome. This also produces pre-rRNA in yeasts.
• RNA Polymerase II: Helps in the production of mRNA (messenger RNA), snRNA (small, nuclear RNA), miRNA. This is the most studied type and requires several transcription factors for its binding
• RNA Polymerase III: This synthesizes tRNA (transfer RNA), 5S rRNA and other small RNAs required in the cytosol and nucleus.
• RNA Polymerase IV: Synthesizes siRNA (small interfering RNA) in plants.
• RNA Polymerase V: This is the least studied polymerase and synthesizes siRNA-directed heterochromatin in plants.
Eukaryotic transcription can be broadly divided into 4 stages:
• Pre-Initiation
• Initiation
• Elongation
• Termination
Transcription is an elaborate process which cells use to copy the genetic information stored in DNA into RNA. This pre-RNA is modified into mRNA before being transcribed to proteins. Transcription is the first step to utilizing the genetic information in a cell. Both Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes employ this process with the basic phases remaining the same. However eukaryotic transcription is more complex indicating the changes transcription has undergone towards perfection during evolution.
Protein Synthesis
The document summarizes the central dogma of molecular biology and the processes of protein synthesis - transcription and translation. It explains that DNA is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus, and mRNA is then translated into proteins by ribosomes in the cytoplasm. Transcription involves RNA polymerase copying the DNA code into mRNA. Translation involves tRNAs matching their anticodons to the mRNA codons and adding the corresponding amino acids to form a polypeptide chain. The genetic code is universal and degenerate, with multiple codons coding for each amino acid.
Transcription and Translation PowerPoint
Transcription is the process of making mRNA from DNA. It involves RNA polymerase making an mRNA complementary copy of the DNA strand. Translation is the process of using the mRNA to produce a polypeptide by linking amino acids specified by the mRNA codons. During transcription, introns are removed from pre-mRNA and exons are joined to form mature mRNA. If the parent DNA strand is A A T G C A G T, the complementary mRNA strand will be U U A C G U C A.
Rna polymerase
RNA Polymerase
Introduction
Purification
History
PRODUCTS OF RNAP
Messenger RNA
Non-coding RNA or "RNA genes
Transfer RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Micro RNA
Catalytic RNA (Ribozyme)
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Transcription by RNA Polymerase
TYPES OF RNA POLYMERASE
Type I
Type II
Type III
Prokaryotic Transcription Unit
EXPRESSION OF A PROKARYOTIC GENE
Prokaryotic Polycistronic Message Codes for Several Different Proteins
Eukaryotic Transcription Unit
ENHANCERS AND SILENCERS
RESULT OF THE TRANSCRIPTION CYCLE
RNAP III TRANSCRIBES HUMAN MICRORNAS
RNAP I–specific subunits promote polymerase clustering to enhance the rRNA gene transcription cycle
RNAP II–TFIIB STRUCTURE AND MECHANISM OF TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION
FIVE CHECKPOINTS MAINTAINING THE FIDELITY OF TRANSCRIPTION BY RNAP IN STRUCTURAL AND ENERGETIC DETAILS
Translation
The document summarizes the process of translation in cells. It describes how the genetic code on mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids with the help of tRNA and ribosomes. There are several steps involved: 1) amino acids are activated by attaching to tRNA, 2) initiation begins with formation of initiation complexes on ribosomes, 3) elongation occurs as new amino acids are added one by one to the growing polypeptide chain through movement of tRNA between ribosomal sites, and 4) termination releases the full protein when a stop codon is reached. The entire process requires energy in the form of GTP hydrolysis at several steps.
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Transcription and the various stages of transcription
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Students gathered for a session to discuss their studies and plans. Many shared challenges they faced with keeping up with their coursework while balancing other responsibilities. Ideas were exchanged on effective time management strategies and using campus resources to stay on track academically.
Lipid profile
This document provides information about lipid profiles and their normal ranges. It discusses how to collect and process blood specimens for lipid profiles. It then defines the components of a lipid profile including total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and VLDL cholesterol. For each component, it provides the normal ranges and clinical significance of abnormal levels. It also briefly discusses apolipoprotein B, phospholipids, chylomicrons, and factors that can increase or decrease their levels.
Introduction of biochemistry
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the four major macromolecules that make up living things. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches and are used for energy storage. Lipids are composed of fatty acids and glycerol and function in energy storage, protection, and insulation. Proteins contain amino acids and perform a variety of functions including growth, energy production, and pH buffering. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain nucleotides and store and transmit genetic information that directs cellular functions. These macromolecules are formed through dehydration synthesis and broken down through hydrolysis.
BIOCHEMISTRY OF LIPIDS
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, and fat-soluble vitamins. They serve important functions like storing energy, signaling, and as structural components of cell membranes. The document defines lipids and discusses their chemistry, classifications, structures, and biological importance. Key points covered include that lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, and include triglycerides, fatty acids, and other compounds.
ECOSANOIDS
Eicosanoids are oxygenation products of arachidonic acid (AA), a polyunsaturated fatty acid found in animal and plant cell membranes. AA is released from membranes by phospholipase A2 and metabolized via either the cyclooxygenase pathway to form prostaglandins, prostacyclin, and thromboxanes, or the lipoxygenase pathway to form leukotrienes. These eicosanoids are involved in various physiological functions including inflammation, smooth muscle tone, blood coagulation, reproduction, and GI secretion. Clinical applications of prostaglandins include female and male reproductive health, inflammation and immunity, gastrointestinal, respiratory, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, ocular health, and cancer.
ROS ANTIOXIDENTS
Aerobic organisms continuously produce reactive free radicals through respiration, metabolism and phagocytosis. Approximately 1-2% of oxygen consumed is converted into superoxide radicals by the respiratory chain, one of the main sources of free radicals in cells. While oxygen is necessary for life, its partial reduction can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that damage living systems. The body has multiple antioxidant defenses to combat ROS, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and vitamin C, which help convert ROS into less reactive species and protect biomolecules from oxidative damage.
LIPID CHEMISTRY
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, and fat-soluble vitamins. They serve important functions like energy storage, signaling, and as structural components of cell membranes. The main classes of lipids are neutral fats/triglycerides (consisting of glycerol and fatty acids), phospholipids, and sterols. Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids like omega-3 and omega-6 are essential nutrients. Lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, and are an important energy source in animals and plants.
Carcinogen
This document discusses carcinogens and cancer. It defines cancer as abnormal cell growth that can invade other tissues and spread to other parts of the body. Carcinogens are substances that can cause cancer. Chemical carcinogens include aromatic hydrocarbons, aromatic amines, and chemicals containing epoxide, organohalogen, and nitroso groups. Carcinogens can damage DNA directly or require metabolic activation. Factors that influence cancer development include dose of exposure, lifestyle factors like smoking, and inherited conditions. Engineering controls, personal protective equipment, hygiene practices, and proper waste disposal can reduce exposure to carcinogens.
Infectious diseases
This document discusses the importance of breastfeeding for infant health and development. It reviews several studies that show breastfeeding reduces the risk of morbidity and mortality from various infectious diseases like diarrhea, otitis media, neonatal sepsis, and respiratory infections. However, in many societies false beliefs interfere with breastfeeding and infants are commonly given prelacteal feeds or mixed feeding instead of being exclusively breastfed. The purpose of the study described is to examine the patterns of infectious diseases in non-breastfed infants compared to breastfed infants admitted to the hospital.
Differences of plasma osmolarity
This document describes a study comparing plasma osmolarity in healthy breastfed and non-breastfed infants. The study included breastfed and non-breastfed infants between 1-6 months of age. Blood samples were collected and analyzed for various biomarkers including glucose, BUN, sodium, potassium, total protein, and albumin levels. Plasma osmolarity was then directly estimated and calculated based on biomarker levels. Results showed breastfed infants had significantly lower glucose, BUN, and plasma osmolarity levels compared to non-breastfed infants. The study concluded breastfeeding provides a lower solute load compared to formula feeding, resulting in lower plasma osmolarity in healthy breastfed infants.
Introdction of metabolism
1. Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that take place in living organisms to sustain life. It includes breaking down nutrients into smaller units and building up complex molecules.
2. Glucose, fats, and proteins are broken down through various pathways to ultimately form acetyl CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle to generate energy in the form of ATP. Less oxygen results in lactic acid formation from glucose.
3. The electron transport chain uses oxygen to convert products of the citric acid cycle into large amounts of ATP, the main energy currency of cells. Fatty acids yield more ATP than glucose due to their carbon-hydrogen bonds.
TRINITY COLLEGE ROBOTIC COMPETITION
The Tufts Robotics Club attended the Trinity College Fire Fighting Robot Contest where they won both the team and individual categories of the Olympiad tournament. This marked the club's fourth win since 2014. They competed in both the mechanical robot competition and trivia-based Olympiad. For the robot competition, Tufts engineered a robot that followed the right wall of the maze and used a fire extinguisher to put out a candle, navigating the maze faster than other teams. In the Olympiad, they demonstrated their strong theoretical engineering knowledge, with sophomore Faizan Muhammad winning individually. The success at this competition aims to attract new recruits to the club.
GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST
A glucose tolerance test (GTT) checks how the body metabolizes blood sugar levels over time. There are two main types: an oral GTT where glucose is ingested, and an intravenous GTT where glucose is injected. It is commonly used to screen for prediabetes and diabetes, especially in obese, pregnant, or high-risk individuals. The test involves fasting overnight, then drinking a glucose solution and having blood drawn over 3 hours to analyze the body's insulin response and how quickly glucose is cleared from the blood. Results are interpreted according to WHO criteria, with different glucose level thresholds indicating normal, prediabetes, or diabetes status.
Conference proceedings
This document summarizes a study that compares the performance of two state observers - a sliding mode observer with super-twisting algorithm (STSMO) and a high gain observer (HGO) - for estimating unmeasured states of a quadrotor UAV. The paper designs each observer and then applies a second order sliding mode control technique using the estimated states to control the quadrotor. Simulations show the performance of each observer under the same control scheme and perturbations. The study aims to compare the observers' characteristics for state estimation of the quadrotor system to determine the best observer for real-time applications given system uncertainties and noise.
social media useage
This study examined the usage of social media by students at the FJMU Lahore. A questionnaire was distributed to 415 students to gather data on their social media usage patterns and behaviors. The results found that 95.9% of students used social media daily, with 77% spending 1-2 hours per day on social media. Major purposes of usage were communication (94%) and entertainment (93%), though 46% also used it for studying. Students reported social media could waste time and distract from studies, but could also be useful for sharing medical videos, knowledge and study guidelines. The study concludes social media distracts students and encourages more non-educational activities, so students should utilize it more for academic purposes and limit entertainment usage
DR MUHAMMAD MUSTANSAR
Dr. Muhammad Mustansar has achieved international recognition for his work. He holds a world record and has had his research published in international posters and books. His accomplishments demonstrate expertise in his field at a global level.
STAINING TECHINIQUES
This document provides instructions for several histopathology staining techniques, including:
- Periodic Acid Schiff (PAS) staining for polysaccharides and basement membranes in magenta.
- Gram-Twort modification for staining bacteria in paraffin sections in blue-black (Gram positive) and pink (Gram negative).
- Ziehl-Neelsen technique for staining acid-fast bacilli like Mycobacterium tuberculosis red against a blue background.
It also describes the Periodic Acid Schiff/Alcian Blue dual stain to differentiate acid mucins (blue) from neutral mucins and carbohydrates (magenta). Precise protocols and reagent preparations are provided for accurate histological analysis.
Histopathology
This document provides information on various histopathology staining techniques. It describes the steps for taking paraffin sections to water, dehydrating and clearing sections in xylene, blotting sections dry, and mounting sections. It also details procedures for Ziehl-Neelsen staining for acid-fast bacilli, Gram-Twort staining for bacteria, Periodic acid Schiff staining, Periodic acid Schiff/Alcian blue staining, and the buffered Congo red method for amyloid. Precise reagents and safety notes are included for each technique.
Lactation
This document discusses guidelines for drug use during lactation. It begins by outlining principles from the Quran and Hadith regarding breastfeeding. It then discusses anatomy related to lactation and hormonal regulation. Guidelines for chemotherapy during lactation emphasize using drugs with minimal infant exposure and avoiding unnecessary drugs. Several classes of drugs are discussed, identifying those that are generally safe to use during lactation like beta-blockers, thiazides, ACE inhibitors, warfarin, inhaled asthma medications, and corticosteroids. Drugs that should be avoided include phenobarbital, primodone, and clonazepam. The document also covers stimulants and inhibitors of lactation.
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