Soil compaction reduces pore space in soil, increasing density and restricting water and air movement. It can occur naturally over long periods, but is often caused artificially by heavy machinery and vehicles. This leads to poorer root growth, lower crop yields, reduced water infiltration and fertilizer efficiency, and increased cultivation difficulty. Preventing compaction through reduced traffic and appropriate tire inflation can help maintain soil quality.

1. I
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I S H A N

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I S H A N

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ISHAN

8. d':>o.J..U'- b~ ~ ~ ,Z,~ . ~
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ISHAN

10. r
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I S H A N

12. ~~ ~ s,pP{l'Cf'd;J~ ~-
~ ·a,..u,o..OL~~ k--- ~nUJr~ in s~~ to ~
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I S H A N

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ISHAN

15. Eroded Soils: Detachment and transportation of soil from one place to another place
through the action of wind , water , raindrop.
In India 86.9 % caused by water, 17.7 % caused by wind out of total 173.6 M ha of
total degraded land in India.
- - -
--::..,_
-
-
- _- ·_ ~o~I erosion refers to_
the wearing a way of a field's soil py_
th~_
r1~tµ~al Qhysical
- -~ <?t~~~~otVater and wi~d~ It can be_
a ~9~-PC - - · l0JJif!i~ti_?f~
-or- -
-•~:¢_
ut~
~}an-:~l~_rm1rigJete,~
~ausir, ---.--- ~' ~" -· ~~--~~~~~~~~-,==-
fg
~g}<i:rn~tt~r~
16§-~c-oJ:--=-.-? - - ~-
~ "
]f21
Rfi~!~f!l-
~
~-- ~~~~-~
-_ .
--- ·qu_
prq_c
~~- ""-=~~- - -= ~ ~-
- sion, wh
soil detachmenf-
~
c-~
Accelerated erosio
causes are tillaget
increased by activit
triggers erosion ha

16. Boll Bro•lon , ., · ~, ·
"Soll oro1lon generally rcfcn co detachment and transport of aoll and soil macerlal by ~l:-
wlnd, Ice or aravlty water and wind being tho major- factor•... Large flood plains and ~ : :f
plnln1 aro formed due co wcarJna or·mountafns. However, this steady and slow process 0 ,-.;;---
11 non-do1tnactlve, and la, therefore, known oa •natural erosion'' or 'scologfcal erosion'.. Ocolo&Jt.uro
oro1lon 11 not detrl.mcntul to man'• well being ,and I• wh~Jly ~eyond hfs control. ca1
Typo of,Soll Bro•lot
n ·
~;, :·!; ' i
:~·.::.:~ ;:.( . _r
'f:[,11.,.., T
lo·
glcal eroalon
iil::{;;,1ii:,·.:1 ,; or
. cautra·I eroalon
, 1 1
1
11"1 or :
,,'I etural erosion ·, ,,, ,
~
1
y , blologlcal acUv,
I
1
, Jndrops, ralnfaH,,:,,
, I pographlc and 1'
,'
1
,. ·a·nd gravilatlona '
• 'folrty balanced
•
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~;Rnt,lnuous and slo
a:>roc,e•
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Typ• of aoll oro•lon
.I . . . :
•
Acceler,-ted erosion
· · or -
Abnormal erosion
.,,.:,,, or _ -
·:/f;iJf.,}, 1Simply erosion .. •
~~ri~,;t':l~;~,~ro~~:;.,;.:~
,,
1
tfr~,f~•l::fit:1d af(orestation practice.
. .- x
~
,1;;;fi;r;;:bft·
h:~:,~he ~on
cl ,destru~!,v•__proce~a.. ··
i
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·.,. :,.:,_;••.1:,r.:._/:.:l_
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· .- ·_· i !'{ !!a ,,1• ,: I j ,' .
• - - J-.
Water form,s'·' ·
or
Raindrop
o.g. splash erosion
or
Raindrop erosion
Soil ero
· -,n.costaI
Stream ·ba
;- ~-
e~1h_
or-_
ement · '.: :;o·- ,..,:-
~
Ja,:id :":::;/."

17. Soil drifting is a feitilify-<Je .~. .- ~ . ".c-· _ . . . __
reductions in areas·-
offieldswherewind-
erosioit,t:ltr
;- - -~- ""-'-:- ~~~=.-- ;:'., -~--; ~,:..::-~ -:a:-~. .:.~.3:: -:-~-~;_- --~:~...,;_ -c:~~~
~ ~ _- -
-=.:_ -_- ".:--;::-·
Continual drifting of an area graduany-ca~
uselaJlxffira
sand. ~ill. clay and organic particles-from·sand{ soils~
s'elv
ei'tolo.er fre
capacity of the soil. - - - - - -· "·-·:~~:-'.=i3L,:_: :
:,. ~, • -··c -,--
~-.c' '· {. -
/ ..~ . . -~- . ·:

18. !'_ ;T
::~>
,..... . ..".:lfi?~~r··' .
:l;:,/::ji8,·::.•. ·flf!St 1
Er
:;r~r:/,h) RufEfo;
sf'
::.c·- ; c) Gully: ."'" .
:,:' d)
..:. ~· ·-•;' :
n ra
:,~.../·,oontiouI
":;;·J.-:::!•' :!.- ?;{');;i;'1::idi1
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:
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~iit1:1"fii'lii,/
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d.·
r}eclttfrigto}
rnent sou,>•I
; :··;/,, J,;" l,
0
1 '.·_':;
:::r::;:,.: ::.,;,:::,/t:
tachment··
nl{occurs·a
. ell~ .

19. 3. Gully Erosion . _- . _
Gully erosion is "the removal of soil or soft rock material distinct narrow channels, larger __·_
than rills, which usually carry water only during and immediately after rains". A gully is a -- ~ , _.:.~ _
distinct channel, carved into a hill slope or valley bottom by intermittent or ephemeral runoff. -• _--
Such channels are carved where the force exerted by flowing water - a function of its mass ~:<--'. _
and velocity - exceeds the subsoil's resistance. Gully erosion results in significant amounts of ---~-
land being taken out of production and creates hazardous conditions for the operators of fa~ :_~~-:-
machinery.
4. Bank Erosion
Bank erosion is the wearing away of the banks of a stream or river. This is distinguish~ :--=,._-:•
from erosion of the bed of the watercourse, which is referred to as scour. Bank erosion is the -- ·
progressive undercutting, scouring and slumping of these drainage ways. There are three _
main processes that cause bank erosion (scour, mass failure and slumping), and it is essential -
to determine which are operating at any particular site because the management required to -·
slow or prevent them may differ.
·
Bank scour is the direct removal of bank materials by the physical action of flowing water and
is often dominant in smaller streams and the upper reaches of larger streams and rivers. -
Mass failure, which includes bank collapse and slumping, is where large chunks of bank _ __
material become unstable and topple into the stream or river in single events. Mass failure is -- ,
often dominant in the lower reaches of large streams and often occurs in association with
scouring of the lower banks.

20. ·,,;'~,
i,;:
:::;;;;1,
··..
·· hcaus,n9.~ever~o:-
..,.. / .ositions~1th1s·:,i
":i,J 'action-'.~/;:·,:]
ntrates···

21. -~ -
-Soil compaction _
___ _
~ ~;--?~~~-~--~
-;:-· .
-- -Co~paction is the artificialand mechanical process of d~crea~ing th~~
fgl§n1"'~:o!the soil:•_
·~:~-
1
_ rapidly by the expulsion of air voids in the soil resulting in_
ttJe_
]ncreas~Jn-J~~n~i_
ty~ "- -- .- :t.<-~·=-· 1
-~ - _
Dens~cation of soil also occurs naturally due to consoli~ati_o_~--<?~-fou:n~a_1Lqrf i~li ~y<~_, ·_ ~)>.-!
- _
expulsion of pore water due to loads from the structure~This 1s a _
ra!her ron -terrrt--;_-:,:_--_-~. - :- ~·----~
- - process compared to compaction - - -~~;=;~~::~~~=--~j- -:~~~~i{~~~-~:--{it.}
Soil compaction can lead to:
- poor root growth-which reduces crop yield_
thro!,igt[]2 _
difficulties with soil cultivation and seedbed p(ep~talf
a decrease in water entering the soil eith~(Jis:(ajrr-
:o
a decline in soil structural stability >-=-~
a decline in fertiliser efficiency-as theJarge:_
bt9cks~:Q-~
surfaces to retain and release f~rtiliserJoLc~
:Cfi:r~
gfof,t -~~ ~- --- :~~-- - .-- ~~, -~- ~- :. ::1~~~!f1:S~~1_~:~~~r_·• -,"
a soil that requires more horsepower (and fuel) to culUvate_~
~
~
pfantingjrf,lp@fuehts~
are less:~~:~?f;
effective in compacted soil and poor germinaUon is the result~ - -~--c~:t1~t:;::~~:S,ti:.-·,,- - ,-- ·-'"~
- ·~< ."~~~~~,~-~~~-~ -.
-
... ~),·,', ~--

22. Effect of compaction is discussed on the following·soil properties:
Soil structure :
The degree of orientation of soil particles increases gradually with increase in water content and the soil
still possesses a flocculated structure up to the OMC. The orientation of particles increases more rapidly
with increase in water content for soils compacted wet of optimum.
Shear Strength:
Soils compacted dry of optimum have more shear strength than those compacted wet of optimum. The
cohesion and friction angle are both higher for soils compacted dry of optimum
Pore water pressure : As the water content is less for soils compacted dry of optimum, there is zero or
negligible pore water pressure (due to discrete and local pockets of saturation). Soils compacted wet of
optimum show higher pore water pressure, which reduces the effective stress and frictional comp6tlent of
shear strength.
Compressibility:
Soils compacted dry of optimum are less compressible due to their flocculent structure and greater particle
interference and resistance to deformation
.Shrinkage:
Shrinkage is the decrease in the volume of soil due to the evapo'ration of water. Soil compacted dry of
optimum undergoes less shrinkage due to random particle arrangement and particle interference that offers more
resistance to deformation. Shrinkage is more for soils compacted wet of optimum due to dispersed structure and
lesser particle interference and resistance to deformation
.Swelling:
A clay soil compacted dry of optimum has more water deficiency and large void ratio and hence imbibes
mo~e water resulting in larger swelling, compared to the soil at the same dry density compacted wet of
optimum.
Permeability:
Soil~ compact~d ~t low wa_ter content possess low dry density and large void ratio and hence are more
perm_eable. With increase in water content dry of optimum, the dry density increases and void ratio decreases
causang a decrease in permeability.

23. Types of wat~f
=-•:•·-;t::;'-'');~
-·I - - - c;iij;
everie flood waJerdogg
1cient
·!: {; Oceanic floo·d ~~ter lo ,
s~·
~sonal waterJo~
ggin'g --~"
Jll•! jf 1, , ' · •i ·;>;___., ,_ ;I:;',_·:_--, _ · _ ,;,;; 1,..:. ,-~§...~-:,.::_
..._-,.,, _ - ... ::-- --=-----= ~-
PerenniaI water logging eep~age--water --.-
Ji
1
' 1
:11 1 h , ~ - I'• f - - + ~ "' ' -;: ~: t. '--=----=
~--=::-:...-, -,_- -_ ,
'fro'm canal causing·perenQ1a , 1
,:,, , . , -,.~-~.~.,-:~~:::~-:-- - -~ · · •
I ' 'Ii, . ..I ; 1j 1; '1/ Iv~· .t/ I 1,. •;1--.:c ¥~! 1h/ I!, 1f:- l1J~1 ~lj' ;.,i-"i· J '-=:,;~;: '. ·,,:'..,,':'__:-~,;::;;,-.
'. Continuous:submerg~d:~'·~~5:7~
.s~m:~~e _
... ·"_...._' ',.',. ·'. :, ·•,· ·.•·· ...,? .. ··•·. -~.
c~ 'ORt,:
111.
~rnJICe

24. ftl~j&Q: chemical changes during water lodged condition
1
1 1
1
'
1
•:, 1
.,·
.;I ij,Ji(li;i?'1
;ii;f;,:( .
Soil structure - destroy soil structure and make ·. ··, ·· ·:am
Soil temperature -down soil temperaturii:'
1
:,
.. Soil pH - reversibre pH change of fh'e flo ''
alkarine soil · _ _ __
Depretion_
o~ ~xygen iri water _
logge-
d soil
_,, .• ·• .
0
• ··ec- . --•·• ,-:,·7 --=-i ---- . - .,-
-- '--~
:-!"--
•-··_;," ..·c
Accumurati6n of.·· dejn
; ,·,.·}C_ompadiph'i;t-~-,~~;~t5'';;.c~t ~- ~rc~ "c;:0.~2~~~~~ :;;~-
;_
/'Jillfo1umEr-··c:c
·-
:I(e~cht!ij~
g"
~s?~:suifden-
:~~ ~ ~;'":~z'.:-~~
3 <~--r-·aseous·exc
•c)-·Nitrog~
e,r:;· ·deficie·nt,·
--- Sulphur"-:-
deficiency_!
Effect oncrops :-under: _.- ~
unavailability of nutrientsfff __
-- - . - --j::
:~-~ ::';;,_,_"'--=-c-=.:.__--;:-
·Decrease in [~dox potenti~l(Eh];
1l~[J--~cc::_· - _ _- _ _
Increase in PH of acid soil al{cfcfecrease.:in PH of alkaline soifs-
Increase in specific conductance ?:
G:t-- --"~ _
-_
Cation exchange reactions involving Fe2+ -
' '
', ' .
1f',:,i:'/J)t1l:: I - t :
' ·· · · idic soils and decrease in
J~i~y '. -,
- seous -_

25. Management of water lodged soil
Levelling of land
Drainage
Controlled irrigation
To check the seepage in canals and irrigation channels
Plantation of tree having high transpiration rate gg, Eucalyptus, accatj9.z.!,VZipt,us _
etc
Selection of crops and varieties.

29. I S H A N

30. I S H A N

32. I S H A N

33. I S H A N

34. I S H A N

35. I S H A N

36. I S H A N

38. I S H A N

39. I S H A N

40. I S H A N

41. I S H A N

42. I S H A N

43. I S H A N

44. I S H A N

45. I S H A N

46. I S H A N