Tools of Reseach

2. Scholar : Tahira Altaf
Subject: Applied Research in Education
Submitted to: Dr Muhammad Ramzan
Department of Educational Training
THE ISLAMIA UNIVERSITY OF BAHAWALPUR

3.  Measurement as a tool of research
 Four scale of measurement
 Validity and reliability in measurement
 Statistics as a tool of research
 Functions of statistics in educational
research
 Human mind as a tool of research
 Inductive and deductive logic,
 Scientific method
 Critical thinking

4. According to advance learner dictionary page # 954
“The act or process of finding the size, quality or degree of something is called
measurement.
According to Leedy Paul
“Measurement is limiting data of any phenomena substantial or insubstantial so that
those data may be interpreted and ultimately compared to an acceptable qualitative
or quantitative standard.”

5. Scales of Measurement:
According to Gay L.R Mills Geoffrey E and Airasian Peter, in book Educational research
P. (145),
“A measurement scale is a system for organizing data so that it may be inspected,
analyzed and interpreted. In other words the scale is the instrument used to provide
the range of values or scores for each variable.”

6.  Nominal scale.
 The word nomin Latin
rooted word which means
name. Nominal scale
measures the nominal
variables.
 According to Gay. LR. P.
(145),
 “A nominal variable is also
called a categorical
variable because the value
includes two or more
name named categories.”
These variables include sex,
employment factors etc
 Ordinal Scale
 According to Gay. LR. P.
(421),
“An ordinal scale not
only classifies subjects but
also rank them in terms of
degree to which they process
a characteristic of interest.”
 ordinal scales permit us to
describe performance is
higher, lower, worse,
better etc

7.  Interval Scales:
 According to Gay. LR. P.
(421),
 “An interval scale has
all characteristic of
nominal and ordinal
scales. But in addition it
is based upon
predetermine
intervals.”
 Achievement test,
aptitude test and
intelligence tests are
examples of interval
scales.
 Ratio Scales:
 According to Gay. LR. P.
(422),
 “A ratio scale
represents the highest,
most precise level of
measurement. A ratio
scale has all advantage
of other types of scales
and in addition it has a
meaningful true zero
point.”
 Height, weight, time,
distance and speed are
example of ratio scales.

8. Scale Description Example
Nominal Categorical Northern, Southern, Dictators,
Democrats, Eye color, Male, Female,
Public, Private, Gifted, Students, Typical
Students
Ordinal Rank Order and
Unequal units
Scores of 5, 6, and 10 are unequal to the
scores of 1, 2, and 3.
Interval Rank order and
interval units
but no zero
points
A score of 10 and score of 30 have the
same degree difference as a score of 60
and score of 90.
Ratio All of above and
true zero point
A woman is 5 feet tall and her friends is
two third as tall as she.
Comparison of Measurement Scales:

9.  “Validity refers to the degree to which a test
measures what it is supposed to measure and
consequently permits appropriate
interpretation of scores”.

10.  Content Validity
 Criterion related validity
 Concurrent validity
 Predictive validity
 Construct validity
 Consequential validity

11.  Definition
“Content validity is a degree to which a test
measures an intended constant area.”
In such type of validity first researcher select
the target content and then construct the test
to check its validity. Content validity has
further two types.

12.  According Airasian Peter,
 “Criterion validity is the degree to which
scores on one test are related to scores to
scores on similar, preexisting test
administered in the same time frame or to
the other available valid measure at the
same time.”

13. “Concurrent validity is the degree to which
scores on one test are related to scores on
similar, preexisting test administered at the
same time”,

14.  Administer the new test to defined group of
individuals.
 Administer a previously established valid
criterion test to the same group at the same
time or shortly thereafter.
 Co-relate the sets of scores.
 Evaluate the results.

15. According to Geoffrey E. Mills,
 “A predictive validity is the degree to which
a test can predict how well an individual do
in a future situation.”

16. Gay L.R Mills, Geoferry E and Peter Airasian P
#(156) describe following procedure for
determining the predictive validity.
 Identity and carefully define the criterion.
 Administer the predictor variable to a group.
 Wait until the behavior to be predicted, the
criterion variable occurs.
 Obtain measures of the criterion for the
same group.
 Co-relate the two sets of scores.
 Evaluate the results

17.  According to Gay LR. P# 140,
 “Concurrent validity is a degree to which a
test measures an intended hypothesis. A
construct is non observable trait such as
intelligence.”

18.  Consequential validity is related with
consequences that occur from tests. All the
tests which have been conducted under the
umbrella of consequential validity involve
more and more individuals. That’s why
consequence of test become more
important.

19.  Unclear test direction.
 Confusing and ambiguous test items.
 Vocabulary too difficult for test takers.
 Overall difficult and complex sentence structure.
 Inconsistent and subjective scoring methods.
 Untaught items including on achievement test.
 Failure to follow standardized test
administration procedures.
 Cheating either by participants or by someone
teaching the correct answers to the specific test
items.

20. Types Method Purpose
Content Validity Compare content of
test to domain being
measure.
To what extent does
this test represent
the general domain
of interest.
Criterion related
validity
Co-relate score from
one instrument of
scores on a criterion
measure, either at
the same time
(concurrent) or
different time
(predictive).
To what extent does
this test correlate
highly with another
test?
Construct validity A mass convergent,
divergent, and
content related
evidence to
determine that the
presumed construct
is what is being
measured?
To what extent does
this test reflect the
construct it is
intended to measure?
Consequential
validity
Observe and
determine whether
the test adverse
consequences for test
takers or users?
To what extent does
the test create
harmful
consequences for test
takers?

21.  According to Gay L.R,
“Reliability is a degree to which test
consistently measure whatever it wants to
measure.”

22.  Test retest reliability
 Equivalent forms reliability
 Spilt half reliability
 Scorer rater reliability

23.  Test retest is a form of reliability in which
one test is conducted in two different
timings to the same participants

24.  Administer the test an appropriate group.
 After passing some time same test should be
conducted to same group.
 Correlate two sets of scores.
 Evaluate the results.

25. In such type of reliability two test are
conducted which don’t have same test items
but they are identical in every way

26.  Administer one form of test to an
appropriate group.
 At the same session or shortly thereafter
administer the second form of test to the
same group.
 Correlate two sets of scores.
 Evaluate results.

27.  Rational equivalence reliability is not
established by correlation but it estimates
internal consistency by determining how
items in the test are relevant with each
other.

28. Statistical analysis involves the process of
collecting and analysing data and then
summarizing the data into numerical form.

29.  Where center of body of data lies?
 How broadly the data is spread?
 How much two or more variables are
interrelated with each other?

30. Descriptive
statistics
 How much
variability exist in
different pieces of
data?
 How two or more
characteristics are
interrelated with
each other?
Inferential statistics
 It help researcher
to make decision
about data.
 It answers the
quantitative
nature of
questions.

31.  All other tools and logic become useless
without effective involvement of human
minds.
 Researcher mind is key element in research
work.

32.  Deductive reasoning
 Inductive reasoning
 Scientific method
 Critical thinking

33.  Deductive reasoning involve essentially the
reverse process-arriving at specific
conclusion based on general principles i.e
observation or experience.
Separate and individual facts leads towards
single conclusion

34.  Inductive reasoning don not begin with pre-
established truth or assumption.
 It leads towards examples to principles.

35.  The goal of scientific endeavors is to explain,
predict and control phenomena. This goal is
based upon the assumptions that all
behaviors and events are orderly and that
they are effects which have discoverable
causes.

36.  Recognition and
definition of
problem
i) Sensation
ii) Conception
iii) Perception
iv) Observation
 Formulation of
hypothesis
 Collection of data
i)Observation
ii) Interview
iii) Questionnaire
 Analysis of data
 Conclusion

37. It involves following steps.
 Verbal reasoning
 Argument analysis
 Decisional making
 Critical analysis of prior research.