Preparation of Inexpensive Instructional Materials EDT 403 2023 Session.pptx
1. PREPARATION OF INEXPENSIVE
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Educational Technology Department,
School of Science and Technology Education (SSTE),
Federal University of Technology, Minna
(c) 2023
Prof. GAMBARI, Amosa Isiaka
E-mail: gambari@futminna.edu.ng
Phone No: +234 803 689 7955
2. CLASSIFICATION OF
AUDIOVISUAL MATERIALS
• Audiovisual can be classified into five
categories, namely:
1. Projected and non-projected materials
2. Audio materials, Visual materials and
Audiovisual materials
3. Hardware and Software
4. Big media and Little media
5. Three Dimensional Media
3. (a) Classification 1:
Projected and non-
projected media
Non-projected materials
Projected
materials
Graphics Display
boards
3-
dimensional
Audio Activity
Films Cartoons Blackboard Diagram radio Radio Computer-assisted
instruction
Filmstrips Charts Bulletin Models Recordings Demonstrations
Opaque
Projector
Comics Flannel board Mock-ups Television Dramatics
Slides Diagrams Magnetic board Objects Experimentation
Flash cards Peg-board Puppets Field-Trips
Graphics Specimens Programmed
Instruction
Maps Teaching machines
Photographs
Pictures
Posters
4. (b) Classification 2: Audio
materials, Visual materials
and Audiovisual media
Non-projected materials
Audio Materials Visual Materials Audiovisual Materials
Language Laboratories Bulleting boards Demonstrations
Radio Chalkboards Films
Sound Distribution System Sets Charts Printed Materials with recorded sound
Tape & Disc Recordings Drawings, etc Sound filmstrips
Exhibits Study trips
Filmstrips Television
Flash cards Videotapes
Flannel boards
Flip boards
Illustrated books
Magnetic boards
Maps
Models
Pictures
Posters
Photographs
Self-instructional
Silent films
Slides
5. (c) Classification 3:
Hardware and Software
• Educational technology can be
classified into two categories, i.e., the
hardware approach and software
approach.
6. Hardware Approach
• Hardware Approach: it is based on
the application of engineering
principles for developing electron-
mechanical equipments for
instructional purposes. This approach
is the result of the impact of scientific
and technological development during
the present century.
7. Cont…
• Hardware devices include the following:
(i)Computers
(ii) Epidiascope
(iii) Magic Lantern
(iv) Motion Pictures
(v) Overhead projector
(vi) Radio
(vii) Slides and film projector
(viii) Tape recorders
(ix) Teaching machines
(x) Television
8. Software Approach
• Software Approach: The
programmes which such as
technology produces are often called
‘Software’. Software approach is
characterized by task analysis, writing
precise objectives, selection of
appropriate learning strategies,
immediate reinforcement of responses
and constant evaluation. Audio-CD,
Video CD, Computer –programm, etc
9. (d) Classification 4: Big
media and Little media
• Big media include computer, VCR and
TV.
• Little media include radio, films strips,
graphics, audio cassettes and various
visuals.
10. (e) Classification 5: Three
Dimensional Media
(i) Models
(ii) Mock-ups
(iii) Specimens
• Three dimensional materials are the
replicas or substitute of real objects.
12. 1. NON-PRINT MEDIA
• This can be categorized into (i) projected
Media and (ii) non-projected media.
• (i). NON- PROJECTED VISUAL
MEDIA
• Non-projected visual media are
educational media that do not require
projection of any kind before they can be
seen and used.
13. The Meaning of Visual
Visual is anything that ‘we can see’ with the eyes which
can be 3D or 2D materials. Every pictorial or symbolic
material on which communication messages are written
is visual.
Types of visual materials:
(i) the three dimensional (2D) and
(ii) the two dimensional (3D).
The 3Dimensional (3D) are solids which have
capacity (volumes, length, breadth, thickness) and
real objects (ball, pieces of equipment, hardware,
etc).
The 2 Dimensional (2D) are not solids but have
surfaces which are flat with length, and breadth. Such
as charts, pictures, graphics, etc.
14. Two Main Visual Elements
(a) Text element: These are texts in form of
caption, title, topic or slogan depending on
the purpose the poster is meant to serve.
(b) Symbolic element: These are visual
objects in form of picture, diagram,
illustration, or generally clip arts.
15. Functions of Visuals
(i) Enable us to provide ideas in many
forms e.g. as diagrams and graphs;
(ii) to explain in a pictorial form, certain
qualities of things and processes, so
that we cannot easily assimilate and
understand;
(iii) Enable us to communicate ideas
which will be difficult, if not
impossible, to describe in words.
16. Advantages of non-projected
visual media
(i) They do not require electricity or light
source.
(ii) They are far more easily designed,
produced, acquired and improvised by
teachers and schools.
(iii) Modification, that is alteration and
amendment can easily come out
comparatively. In order words, they are
more cost effective.
(v) Many non-projected media are easily
17. Cont…
(vi) They have a wider variety of size,
shape, colour and appeal.
(vii) They often give individual and
groups opportunity to participate in
their creation which is a very valuable
aspect of learning process.
18. Cont…
• The non-projected visuals include a wide
range of materials. For the purpose of this
course, we can categorize non-projected
media into the following:
(a) Still picture
(b) Graphics
(c) Models
(d) Realia
(e) Puppets
(f) Display boards
19. (A) STILL PICTURES
• These may be real
photographs (black
and white or
coloured) or hand-
made drawings,
and paintings,
smaller pictures are
meant for individual
use or for study in
small groups.
20. Instructional Purposes of Pictures
(a) Stimulate interest
(b) Prevent and correct misconceptions
(c) Recall experiences
(d) Encourage learning.
(e) Dramatize a point and demonstrate a
process.
(f) Enrich and enliven reports.
(g) Review and summarize.
21. Uses of Pictures for Classroom Instruction
(i) The subjects of pictures need to be familiar e.g.
represent local life, cultural beliefs, and one's
perception
(ii)Pictures should carry details in to avoid
misinterpretations.
(iii) Pictures should centre on a human activity and cut
down on surrounding detail.
(iv)Irrelevant detail may lead to complete misinterpretation
of a message. Therefore, details in pictures need to be
absolutely accurate.
(v) If colour is used in pictures, it should be accurate in
every detail. Inaccurate colouring. Just like inaccurate
drawings can confuse people.
(vi) People sometimes prefer pictures in colour, and it
ensures understanding of details.
(vii) Learning would probably depend heavily on the effect
of the text accompanying the pictures.
22. (B) GRAPHICS
What is a graphics?
Graphic is a word derived from Greek
meaning ‘writing’. The basic idea
behind graphics is the intention of
writing, which regards all written and
drawn elements as writing. Every
visual created and developed has an
objective of bringing a pictorial
message to the viewer.
23. Characteristics of Graphics
Graphics material have the following features:
(i). 2-dimensional representation and commonly
on bill boards, felt board, bulletin and
chalkboards,
(ii). Non-projected materials,
(iii). No motion,
(iv). Flexibility in the pacing of' the presentation
(i.e. according to the objectives),
(v). Abstract and highly simplified
representation of facts and ideas.
(vi). May vary in size to the object or event
24. Pedagogical Values of
Graphic
• The pedagogical value of graphic materials lies in
their capacity to:
(i). Attract and hold attention,
(ii). Arouse interest of learners,
(iii). Convey messages in condensed and
summarized form, hence it is called 'universal
shorthand,
(iv). Facilitates understanding and memory
(v). Complements verbal information
(vi). Facilitates prose reading
(vii). Facilitates eye movements
(viii). Enhance understanding and interactions.
25. Qualities of a Good Graphic
Material
Graphic materials have the ability to facilitate
learning due to certain qualities such as:
(i). Attractiveness - a good graphic work is in colour
with which it attracts and holds attention.
(ii). Legibility - a good graphic material is bold in
both size of the letters, paper, illustration and
colour. It must be visible both in words and
pictures.
(iii). Brevity - a good graphic is brief both in words
and illustration, convey one concept at a time.
(iv). Simplicity - a good graphic material contains
few words and simple line or few diagrams -
26. Types of Graphic Materials
• There is a wide variety of graphics
which are of significant instructional
values. They include –Charts, Graphs,
Drawing, Cartoons, Comics, maps
and globe, tear-sheets, murals, etc.
Subsequently, some of these forms of
graphics are briefly described.
27. (a).Charts
• Charts are visual representations of
abstract relationships to reflect and show
quantities, chronologies and hierarchies.
• There are of two basic types of charts:
(i) Text Charts e.g. Title, bullet, table and
organization charts.
(ii) Data Charts e.g. Bar, line, pie and scatter
charts.
28. Types of Posters
Two types of posters can be distinguished i.e. the single-
glance poster and the stop-and-study poster.
• Single-glance posters: These are like the graphic visuals
produced by commercial organizations, airlines and even
government agencies to advertise a product, a service, or a
cause. Such posters usually carry some pictorial information
which is very colourful and vivid to attract attention. The
pictorial information may be supplemented by a very brief
caption to produce a very colourful, attractive and eye-
catching visual message which the audience can quickly
absorb.
• Stop-and-study posters: Like the single-glance posters, they
are colourful and attractive. Unlike them, however, they carry
more than one picture and many words. In this respect, they
are like wall charts.
29. There are two basic types of
charts
(i) Text Charts e.g. Title, bullet, table and
organization charts.
(ii). Data Charts e.g. Bar, line, pie and
scatter charts.
32. Pictorial Chart
• This is also called an
identification chart.
Interestingly attractive,
it requires time and
skill to construct or
even understood.
Information is
pictorially illustrated.
And orderly arranged.
It equally bears some
keys to the size and
labels to the parts of
the pictorial
illustrations.
33. Tabular Chart
• This is generally
used to bring
together in
compressed form,
a mass of related
data. Examples
includes class
time table,
frequency table
etc.
Frequency Table
34. Genealogical Chart
• This is a classification chart used extensively
in history teaching to denote dynasties,
chronological order, cause and effect of an
event. It sometimes combines pictorial
illustrative to highlight important events of the
period.
• Two major varieties of genealogical chart are
tree and stream charts.
35. Tree chart
• Tree chart: is probably
gained from its structure
which depicts
numerously branched
tree. The branches
represent parts of the
phenomenon. It is
essentially analytical in
function and used to
denote traits
compositions or classes
or the inter-relationship
of generations of families
or classes in a society or
present effects of an
Tree Chart
36. Stream Chart
• This is opposite of a tree
chart in that, it is
synthetic in function. It
comprises of tributaries
and even sub-tributaries
representing parts and
sub-parts of a
process/phenomenon
coming together to form
a product. It is ideal for
showing all the
necessary raw materials
their order needed to
manufacture a product.
A Stream chart
37. Flow Chart
• It is both analytical and
synthetical in function. It
involves a lot of
geometric symbols which
can be rectangular,
diamond or circular in
shape.
• Developmental Stages of an insect
38. Strip and Flip Chart
• Strip Chart: Strip chart is a
single chart with sequentially
arranged and covered by
paper strips. These strips are
consequently and sequentially
removed to expose the
required part of the chart.
• Flip chart: composed of more
than one chart sequentially
arranged and clipped together
at one end. Each chart is
flipped/turned over after it
must has been seen and
discussed, to expose the next
one. If occasion warrants, flip
charts an also be separated
and displayed on the wall or
board reference purposes.
39. Time and Sequence Chart
• These are use to show
the developmental
stages of an event.
The land mark events
are identified and
arranged in
chronological order.
Pictures or drawings
can be added to the
time line to illustrate
important events or
major stages of
development.
40. • Skill/Experience Chart :This chart shows
experiences or items with or without pictures. It is
extensively used language arts, teaching
planning, skill fostering and evaluating work done
by the students.
• Time-line Chart: This shows time relationships.
It depicts information in form of lines. It is similar
to time and sequence chart.
• Wall Charts: The wall chart/sheet is primarily
intended to supplement classroom teaching, you
can use it to enable the pupils consolidate or
extend their knowledge of things that have been
taught in the class. Such charts are usually hung
on walls of the classroom, laboratories,
mathematics laboratory or geography room.
41. Organizational Chart
• This is used in
showing the
organogram of an
establishment. It
shows the functional
relationships, how
authority flows in an
organization from the
highest to the lowest
position.
School Organogram
42. • Specific Uses of Charts
(i)Charts represent steps in a process;
(ii) They represent sequence of events of
historical period of incident;
(iii) Charts show relationships among things,
individuals, events, family or organizations;
(iv) They show numerical or
proportional relationships; and
(v) They show comparisons and contrast
between things, ideas, events, etc.
43. • Using Chart to Teach in the Classroom
• A chart for classroom use must be bold,
legible and large.
• You should put it up where everyone in the
classroom or in the group can see and read
it. It must be firmly hung.
• If it is designed to teach in a step by step
way, we then use flip chart. You can mount
it at the top conveniently.
• By flipping over the sheets, you display each
visual sheet as you read it.
44. Wall Charts
• The wall chart/sheet is primarily
intended to supplement classroom
teaching, you can use it to enable the
pupils consolidate or extend their
knowledge of things that have been
taught in the class. Such charts are
usually hung on walls of the
classroom, laboratories, mathematics
laboratory or geography room.
45. Specific Uses of Charts
(i) Charts represent steps in a process;
(ii) They represent sequence of events of
historical period of incident;
(iii) Charts show relationships among things,
individuals, events, family or
organizations;
(iv) They show numerical or proportional
relationships; and
(v) They show comparisons and contrast
between things, ideas, events, etc.
46. Using Chart to Teach in the
Classroom
• A chart for classroom use must be
bold, legible and large.
• You should put it up where everyone
in the classroom or in the group can
see and read it.
• It must be firmly hung. If it is designed
to teach in a step by step way, we
then use flip chart.
• You can mount it at the top
conveniently. By flipping over the
47. GRAPH
• Bar Graph: This
comprises of series
of simple but solid
vertical or horizontal
bars of unequal
length but constant
wide signifying fixed
amounts. These bars
can be distinctly
shaded/coloured in
various patterns to
depict proportions or
percentages. Annual crop production
48. • Circle/Pie Graph:
This is also called a
sector graph. It works
on the principle that a
circle is made up of
360o. It is an effective
simple means of
comparing amounts in
a whole (100%) which
is represented by a
circle.
Pie graph: Four main cash crops and
their proportions of output in 2001
49. • Line Graph: Though
this may appear
simple, it is the most
abstract graph.
• Velocity Time Graph
50. Pictorial/Symbol Graph
• Its communicates in
simple pictorial
illustrations. It
transmits
comparative
information in such
an extremely
condensed manner
that is likely to be
remembered while a
column of statistical
figures would be
easily forgotten.
Growth in Man
51. MAPS/GLOBES
• A map broadly
speaking is
essentially a
representation of
the earth’s surface
or part of it.
• A globe is a form of
map but in a
dimensional form. It
is said to be an
artificial sphere
52. • RELIEF MAP/GLOBE
It shows elevations, depressions, and outlines, the curving valleys of
rivers, the flatness of lakes, oceans and plateaus. It simply depicts the
natural features in the environment.
Political Map/Globe: This is designed primarily to show all the man-
made features - location boundaries and direction of countries,
states/cities, trade routes.
Physical-Political Map/Globe: This combines political and relief
characteristics of environment.
Pictorial Map: This is a map of any form but with pictorial illustrations. It
is usually attractive and interesting.
Desk/Pocket Map: The essence is that an individual uses it for a private
learning or movements. It encourages individuals map reading. It is
normally smaller than the one used in general class discussion.
Slated/Outline Map/Globe: This is normally large in size to enable one
write on it. It is just a skeleton or an outline of the environment which
needs some additional flesh which can be washed or erased later.
53. • Flat maps
Map that can be made on the chalkboard, paper, piece of
cloth or other two – dimensional materials are flat maps.
• Atlas: An atlas is a book which contains flat maps. Many
school children and students usually have their own personal
copies.
• Outline maps
• chalkboard outline maps of reasonable sizes can be easily
made using stencils.
• pupils outline maps may be traced and you can then
reproduce them on a duplicating machine.
• Wall or Washable/Erasable Outline Map: It is normally
large in size so that the person in the class can see it and
read it conveniently. The teacher uses pointer to explain facts
on it by pointing at it without blocking the sight of anybody in
the class. It can be on the wall, board, or big sheet of paper
posted on the wall or board.
54. Uses of Maps for Classroom
Instruction
(i) Physical features- mountains, rivers, vegetation,
geological formations, etc of a place.
(ii) Socio-economics life- political boundaries, resources,
products industrial activities and historical change (e.g.
historical atlases).
(iii) Location of places- tourist’s attractions, parks monuments,
local streets, buildings, and distances between them.
(iv) Another way of using maps in science is for showing
distribution of organisms (plants and animals) throughout
the world (the geography of life) or distribution of diseases.
55. FLASH CARDS
• Flash cards are cards
that carry graphic
(pictorial and verbal)
messages. The cards
can be “flashed” one at
a time at the class.
They can be used to
teach practically all the
subjects in the school
curriculum. They are
easy to make, easy to
carry and use.
Tafa Balewa
Ladoke Akintola
Nnamdi Azikwe Obafemi
Awolowo
Ahmadu
Bello
56. • TEARSHEET: This is
any cut-outs collected
from newspaper,
magazines or any
related document.
Related materials are
cut from different
sources, at different
times, and clipped
together for
instructional purposes.
MURALS: A mural is a
wall decoration using
graphic arts. It could be
on board or on sheets
of paper stretched and
fixed to the wall.
• It could be sequence of
several pictures of an
event.
• It is common in nursery,
primary schools and the
front of the
departmental buildings.
• It makes classroom
colourful and attractive
for learning.
57. DRAWING/DIAGRAM
• A drawing may be
diagram, sketches or
illustration.
• A diagram is a
condensed line-
drawing and symbols
designed to show
inter-relationships,
• They outlines or key
features of a
process, object,
mechanism, idea or
area.
58. ILLUSTRATION
• Illustration refers to all forms of non-textual prints
depicting images, objects or pictures that form
parts of a book. Illustrations can be a product of
any of these art forms; drawing, painting,
photograph, or any other graphic process.
59. CARTOONS
• Cartoons are commonly
still animated drawings
that could easily capture
attention and influence
behaviour and attitude
both in children and
adults.
• The term could also refer
to animations created in
still visual but later
recorded for motion
pictures, they are mostly
used for TV commercials,
advertisements, movies
and soap operas.
60. COMICS
• These are series of cartoons which as you read
it gives you a story about something. It can be
categorized under cartoon or series of cartoons
giving a long information. Or story.
63. • When the use of real thing is not possible, an
alternative is provided. A model is any realistic
representation of the real thing.
• It is the best, easily and quickly recognizable
replica of real thing. A model may be larger,
smaller, or the same size as the object’s it,
represents.
• It may be complete in detail or simplified for
instructional purposes. In fact, models can
provide learning experiences that real things
cannot provide. For instance, important detail
can he accented with colour.
• Some models can be dismantled to provide
interior views not possible with the real things.
65. (E) REALIA
• These are real things, specimen, artifacts.
Objects or events are best visualized as
real things. For example: Collection of
birds, insects, plants etc. Specimen are
objects which are representative of a group
or class of similar objects for example: soil
and rock specimen The problems which
some people encounter in recognising and
understanding unfamiliar objects are
minimized with the use of real things. They
are the best instructional materials and, as
much as possible teachers should go for
66. Merits of Realia
• There are often considerable advantages
to be gained from letting learners see or
handle the real thing as opposed to a
mere representation. For instance, real
things
• (i) Provide first-hand information; present
objects or events exactly as they are.
• (ii) Stimulate the sensory organs because
they can be handled, tested and
manipulated.
67. Cont…
(iv) Enhance skill acquisition e.g. driving,
typing, etc.
(v) Clarify abstract ideals and assist the
learners understand facts.
(vi) Bridge the gap between theory and
practice, enable learners become familiar
with them, see them as part of their
environment, relate them to their life
problems and activities.
(vii) Stimulate imagination and discovery;
enable students to organize ideas and build
68. Demerits of Realia
• In many cases, the use of real things will be
practicable on of:
• (i) Availability: sometimes the real things may
not be readily available particularly the ones that
are seasonal e.g, fruits, animals, events,
attempts to get them at the wrong period of the
year may be futile.
• (ii) Accessibility: Sometimes real things may be
accessible, difficult to reach at e.g. the inner
organs of a human being.
• (iii) Safety: Some real things are harmful e.g.
snake, virus, etc are too dangerous to have
69. Cont…
• (iv) Expense: Some are too expensive to
purchase and maintain.
• (v) Size: Some real things like bacteria are
too small to be visualised without a special
aid- while some are too bulky to be brought
into the classroom.
• (vi) Static: Some are immovable, too bulky
to move into the classroom e.g. river,
mountain.
• (vii) Storage: may sometimes be
difficult.
71. • Puppetry is a most modern teaching technique
through which the subjects such as languages,
cultural activities and social studies can be
taught successfully. Puppets are easy to
construct. It needs very little expenses. Puppets,
if skillfully used could improve the teacher’s
ability in his profession. Use of puppetry falls into
four main categories namely: the teacher can
use Puppets to:
(i) portray characters and personality
(ii) write suitable stories for use in the puppet
theatre;
(iii) make a puppet stage;
(iv) the actual staging of the plays.
73. (G) EDUCATIONAL
BOARDS
• One of the group of non-projected display
media that to be considered are the various
educational boards viz: chalkboard, flannel
board, bulletin board, etc.
74. (i) Chalk Board
• The chalkboard (or blackboard as it was called
until it was realized that such boards were very
seldom black any longer) is the oldest and most
commonly used boards at all levels of
education. It is so much a part of classrooms
that it has become a symbol for teaching-
learning process.
75. Types of Chalkboard
• Chalkboard has developed from the wall forms
to more innovative types e.g. roller, magnetic,
etc.
76. (a) WALL CHALK BOARD
• This is an
immovable board,
most commonly
used in primary and
secondary schools.
It appears as
painted part of the
classroom wall or
hard or plywood
fixed to the wall.
77. Cont…
• Apart from being readily available cheap and
durable, also provides larger working area
and good writing surface. Its two major
disadvantages are that:
(i)It is limited to the room in which it is fixed, and
(ii) Most often exposes the work not yet needed.
78. (b) Mobile Chalk Board
• This appears as sheet of wood on permanent
stand, or on mobile stand e.g. easel.
• It could also stand be painted skin, leather
material or brown paper with hanging
facilities.
• Mobile chalkboard is an all purpose board
commonly called supplementary or portable
board.
• It is used for both outdoor and indoor
instruction.
79. Cont…
• Both sides can be
used, making it
possible for the
teacher to hide
from students
diagrams and write-
ups not yet needed.
It has smaller
working surface
and does not
always provide very
good working
80. Cont…
• (c) Pulley Chalkboard
• This is also called revolving surface board. It
has multiple surfaces with a roller mechanism.
White and special surfaces are in institutions of
higher learning. It is also ideal for conference
rooms and theatres.
• It is used for both projection and other lessons
without necessarily cleaning off the previous
ones. It is however more expensive than wall or
mobile chalkboards.
82. Merits of Chalkboard
• The chalkboard, though the oldest material
has continued to persist in classrooms for
the following reasons:
(i) It is versatile as it is used for various
purposes in the course of a lesson.
(ii) It is economical - inexpensive and easy
to acquire, maintain, stands the tastes of
time; and readily available for use and re-
use.
(iii) It is adaptable to all levels of learners,
83. Cont…
• (iv)It is attention compelling and allows a
simultaneous visualization by every
member of the audience.
• (v) It permits changes and re-arrangement
of materials when needed.
• (vi)It is a means of displaying impromptu
material (words, equations, diagrams etc)
that have become necessary due to an
unexpected turn in a lesson.
84. Demerits of Chalkboard
(i) Chalkboard does not allow
permanent storage of information for
future reference.
(ii) Commencement of next lesson
usually requires the cleaning of the
chalkboard. Note that this is one of
the outstanding advantages of
overhead projector over chalkboard -
as it is more sensible to produce a
permanent copy of the drawings and
85. Cont…
(iii) Using chalkboard compels the teacher to
talk much hence the term 'talk - chalk'.
(iv) A lot of chalk is usually emitted on the
teacher especially if it is wiped in zig-zag
manner; cleaning in a horizontal side -
ways strokes or vertical downwards
strokes control this.
(v) Chalkboard is not ideal for a very large
group instruction because people at the far
back cannot see the write-ups clearly.
86. (d) Magnetic Board
• This is another evolution of the chalkboard. It
has surface made of Ferro - magnetic material -
enamel steel back. It’s covered with a thin layer
of dark coloured. Vitreous particles. It works on
the principles of magnetism. It uses chalk and
accepts magnetic accessories for illustrations.
The visuals could be print, light weight models
and realia backed with magnets.
87. Cont…
• Magnetic writing board has
become very popular
worldwide and is now the
hallmark of class and
conference room furniture.
This is because of its ability to
serve extra purposes of visual
illustration apart from serving
as writing board. Magnetic
backed visuals can be
arranged or re-arranged by
moving them about on the
surface of the board as
88. (e) Marker Board
• Is also known as white board. It consists of large
sheets of white or light coloured plastic material
with a surface texture suitable for writing or drawing
on using felt pens, markers or crayons, and can be
used in much the same way as chalkboard. It has
advantages viz:
(i)It does not mess up the user as is the case when
chalk is used.
(ii) A much wider range of colours and tone strengths
can be used, and the resulting display is invariably
sharper, better defined and cleaner than is possible
using chalk.
(iii) Unlike chalkboard, white boards can double up as
89. Cont…
• However, it is difficult to
clean the surface of
white boards properly as
that 'ghost' marks are
not left behind. It is
therefore necessary to
stick to the
recommended marker
pens or crayons. This
problem is more obvious
when such pen or
crayon is scarce or
90. (f) Flannel Board
• The flannel board (which is also known as the
cloth board, felt board, flannel-graph) relies on
the fact that shapes cut out of felt, flannel or
similar fabrics will adhere to display surfaces
covered with like material, hence the name cloth
board. Such system can be used both to create
permanent or semi-permanent wall-mounted
displays, but their most important application is in
situations requiring the movement or re-
arrangement of pieces.
92. Cont…
• Merits
• (i) Flannel board is easy to construct and
relatively cheap.
• (ii) It is durable.
• (iii) Storage is simply.
• (iv) It lends itself to versatile display of visuals in
all subjects at any level of education.
• (v) Utilization is easy and does not require
electricity.
• (vi) It permits the re-arrangement of visuals if
needed.
93. Cont…
(vii) It promotes learner's interest and active
participation in a lesson.
(viii) It saves the time that could have been used
on chalkboard drawing.
(ix) It leaves the user neat and smart, as chalk is
not required.
(x) Teachers that are poor at drawing on the
chalkboard are saved from the embarrassment
of drawing, cleaning and drawing again.
94. Cont…
• Demerits
• (i) Flannel board is not as common as
chalkboard.
• (ii) Under emergency situation, visual display is
not possible as it takes some time to prepare.
• (iii) Visual displays are sometimes blown
off by wind resulting into noise interference in
the lesson.
95. Cont…
• (g) Bulletin Board
• This is one of the least expensive boards. It
could be a wall-space, or special pin-tack board.
It could be permanently fixed to the wall or
movable on legs or easel. Glass frame and key
add beauty and protect the materials posted. It is
commonly-used to display student's work,
supplement information, and review materials. It
offers visual alternatives when students are
bored from looking at the teacher, chalkboard or
walls.
96. Cont…
• Bulletin board enhances class participation as
students enjoy planning and preparing it and
the visual materials. The effectiveness of this
board is more when out-dated information is
timely replaced with current ones. Visuals on
the bulletin board are changed as the lesson
themes develop.
98. 2. PRINT MEDIA
• The print media hold a great instructional value,
it include the text and reference books, gazettes,
workbooks, journals, magazines, newspapers,
handbills, handouts, manuals, teacher notes,
community libraries, among others.
• The print media, although may not always be the
most effective instructional channels, have
consistently dominated the educational sector
since 1440. The prints have been under-used,
over-used, and abused at different times.
99. Cont…
• Print materials are the oldest delivery method
available to students and learners for well over
100 years. The more traditional print courses are
provided entirely on paper. Printed course books,
course guides, letters, and comments on
assignments are some examples. Print courses
are usually delivered via the mail, but some also
have e-mail, telephone or fax options to enhance
communication between student and instructor.
100. Advantages
• (i) Extremely portable – materials can be used
in any location
• (ii) High comfort level – most students are very
comfortable using print materials to learn
• (iii) Cost effective - materials can be created
and duplicated with little expense
• (iv) Readily available
101. Disadvantages
• (i) Lacks interaction - materials do not generally
provide built-in interaction.
• (ii) No audio/visual elements – materials are
static and are not appropriate for teaching
languages and visual concepts
• (iii) Requires reading skills – if the learners are
non-readers or language skills are required, print
materials will not be effective
• (iv) Time delay – it may take days or weeks for
printed matter to travel between student and
teacher.
102. TEXT BOOKS
• These are compact, economical and practical
devices in form of print used for keeping and
retrieving information.
• They consist of a number of sheets or printed
information in paper bound together between
covers.
• Textbooks are considered the principal and
most valuable source of information to the
teacher.
103. Advantages of Textbooks
• (i) They can store information for a very long
period of time if they are well preserved.
• (ii) They can assist students to read and study
better.
• (iii) They can be said to be economical since
they can be used and re-used by the same or
different people.
• (iv) Textbook help individualized instruction by
affording the students the opportunity to proceed
at their own rate.
104. Cont…
• (v) Textbooks can make for different students to
study different things at the same time.
• (vi) Textbook can facilitate distant learning.
• (vii) Textbook help to organize and provide
unity for class instruction by providing common
reading experiences, suggested activities,
recommended readings and questions.
105. Disadvantages of
Textbooks
• (i) Some textbook tend to encourage rote
learning or details because they are rigidly
organized on topics.
• (ii) The production of textbooks often take a long
time.
• (iii) Some textbooks are not exciting and
interesting because they are poorly illustrated
and designed.
• (iv) Alteration and amendment are not possible
and textbook content can be obsolete.
106. (B). POSTER
• Poster is a simple, bold and attractive graphics
communication media. A poster is designed to
pass specific information, emphasize an idea, a
message, or a campaign in an instructional or a
training environment. A purpose-driven poster
must contain two main visual elements i.e.
107. Cont…
• (a) Text element: These are texts in form of
caption, title, topic or slogan depending on the
purpose the poster is meant to serve.
• (b) Symbolic element: These are visual objects
in form of picture, diagram, illustration, or
generally clip arts.
• Types of Posters
• Two types of posters can be distinguished i.e.
the single-glance poster and the stop-and-study
poster.
108. Cont…
• Single-glance
posters: These are
like the graphic
visuals produced
by commercial
organizations,
airlines and even
government
agencies to
advertise a product,
a service, or a
cause.
• Stop-and-study
posters: Like the
single-glance
posters, they are
colourful and
attractive. Unlike
them, however,
they carry more
than one picture
and many words. In
this respect, they
are like wall charts.
109. Features of Posters
• 1. Legibility: Bold designs, large enough to be
easily seen and read at a distance of about three
meters (l0ft).
• 2. Attractiveness: Very colourful and
outstanding from its surrounding to be able to
catch and hold attention of a viewer quickly and
long enough to impart the information.
• 3. Brevity: Brief, straight to the point, clear
message devoid of ambiguity.
• 4. Simplicity: Has just one concept to transmit,
few simple words and diagrams.
• 5. Motivation: forceful and promotes action.
110. Uses of Posters for
Classroom Instruction
(i)You can use posters to decorate your classroom;
or more importantly, to foster interest.
(ii) You can use them to create awareness in or
favourable feeling towards any of these and
other subjects.
(iii)On the whole, posters are generally used to
motivate, arouse interest, and remind.
112. Media
• Audio/visual material includes:
• (i) Radio
• (ii) Satellite
• (iii) Cable/Public Television
• (iv) Video cassettes
• (v) Internet
• (vi) CD-ROM; DVD; disc
• (vii) Audio cassettes
• (viii) Live video streaming
• (ix) Video-conference / audio conference
113. Cont…
• (i) Radio: Scheduled broadcasts for various
subject areas.
• (ii) Satellite: Courses offered via a satellite
network require students to travel to a specified
location in order to view and participate in various
courses.
• (iii)Video cassettes (VCs): VCs are mailed to the
students who can then view the course information
with a video cassette recorder (VCR).
• (iv)Audio Cassettes: Like video cassettes, audio
cassettes are often mailed to learners and can
contain lectures, tutorials or administrative
information. In language courses they are often
114. (v) Cable/Public Television: Some classes are
broadcast on cable systems and/or public television
channels, generally on regularly scheduled days
and times on a designated channel.
(vi) Videotape: Courses available on videotape mean
that videotapes will be shipped to you at your
mailing address.
(vii) Audio conference: It is sometimes considered
a conference call,
(viii) Videoconference: A videoconference is a two-
way interactive event where video and audio is
simultaneously transmitted to individuals at sites in
different locations.
(ix) Audio Technologies
• The most important part of any teleconference.
115. Advantages of Audio
Technologies
• Advantages
• (i) Inexpensive:
• (ii) Easily
accessible:
• (iii) Easy to use
• Disadvantages
• (i) May require
scheduling
• (ii) Not conducive
to visual
information:
• (iii) May be
impersonal: With
audio only
interactions, there
is no eye contact
116. (xi)Video Technologies
• Interactive video-conferencing allows
students and faculty at multiple
locations to see, hear, and interact
with one another
• Advantages
• (i) Allows both audio and video
communications.
• (ii) Facilitates personal feelings.
• (iii)Enable high levels of interaction.
117. Disadvantages
• (i) May be expensive
• (ii) Requires a great deal of planning
and preparation:
• (iii)Must be scheduled:
• (iv)Requires technical support:
118. Types of Technologies in
the Online Environments
• (i) Computer CD-ROM/Disk
• Some classes are offered on computer disks,
CD-ROMs, or, more recently, DVDs. The disks
and study materials are mailed to your home.
You need access to a computer to view the
course materials.
• (ii) Internet
• Courses delivered over the Internet often, but
not always, use the World Wide Web. They
may include material to read online, exercises
to complete online using interactive forms,
discussion forums to exchange ideas with the
119. Cont…
• (iii)Live Video Streaming
• Video streaming is a common method for
distributing live or stored video over the Internet.
For live streaming, the instructor’s lectures or
presentations are digitally encoded and
distributed over the network in real time.
• (iv)Web Conference
• Web conferencing is the combination of using a
web browser for visuals and an audio-
conference for discussion. Students and
instructors can show and receive graphics, draw,
and type, demonstrate web sites, share
120. Cont…
• (v) Online
• Online courses, also often referred to as web
courses, are usually defined as courses which
are offered over the Internet. Basic technology
needs are a computer, a web browser and an
Internet connection.
• (vi) Computer Technologies
• Computer Disk/CD-ROM/DVD: Some classes
are offered on computer disks, CD-ROMs, or,
more recently, DVDs. You need access to a
computer to view the course materials.
Courses delivered over the Internet usually use
121. Cont…
• Advantages
• (i) Allow self-paced instruction:
• (ii) May incorporate text, graphics, audio
and video:
• (iii)Allow high levels of interactivity:
• (iv)Provides written record of discussions
and instruction:
• (v) Inexpensive:
• (vi)Worldwide access:
122. Disadvantages
• (i) Requires hardware and software
• (ii) Generally relies on written
communications
• (iii)Requires substantial planning
• (iv)Computer viruses
• (v) No guaranteed performance:
Computer networks are notoriously
unreliable.
123. Online
• An online course is one in which
student and instructor communicate
via computers. The assignments,
class lectures, documents and
responses are on screen.
Communication with the instructor and
other students in the class is through
personal e-mails, bulletin boards and
discussions. The syllabus assignment
and course materials are provided on
124. Cont…
• Advantages
• (i) Better learning
resources
• (ii) More flexible
pace of learning
• (iii) Greater choice
of where to study
• (iv) Increased self-
reliance
• (v) Improved
computer literacy
• Disadvantages
• (i) Alienating
learning experience
• (ii) Technical
Frustration
• (iii) Inadequate
access to
computers
• (iv) Loss of contact
with staff
• (v) Reduced
125. (iv)Social Media
These are new innovation that present
the user opportunity to create, share
and exchange contents, ideas, feelings,
personal information through texts,
images, audio and videos on platforms
such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram,
LinkedIn, Whatapp, Skype, Youtube,
Slideshare, Blogs, and many others.
126. Types of Social Media
• Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) who
pointed out six different types of social
media: (a) Collaborative projects, (b)
blogs and micro blogs, (c) content
communities, (d) social networking
sites, (e) virtual game worlds, and (f)
virtual communities.
127. Cont…
• (i) Collaborative blogs or collaborative
projects. A Wiki is the most typical
collaborative project site (e.g., Wikipedia)
which allow many participants to work
together on the same project (e.g., a
research analysis, writing a dictionary, or
group work project). The participants can all
edit the content of the project at anytime
and anywhere to make it complete. In
addition, all participants in one course can
share and contribute ideas to the course
discussion forum.
128. Cont…
• (ii) Blogs, Microblogs, and Internet
Forums. These are considered
personal web pages where individuals
can communicate with one another
through texts and other multimedia
like videos, audios, and pictures. The
most commons blogs and forums are
Wordpress.com, Blogger.com, and
Yahoo!Groups.com.
129. Cont…
• (iii)Content Communities: The main
function of Content Communities is
sharing media contents (e.g., videos,
pictures, audio clips, and PowerPoint
presentations) between users. Internet
users can create an account for each of
the Content Communities, upload media
content to the sites, and share the media
content with one another. Common types
of the Content Communities are Youtube
(for videos), Flickr (for photos), and
130. Cont…
• (iv)Social Networking. Facebook,
Ning, LinkedIn, and MySpace are
considered the most common social
networking sites. They are called
Social Networking Sites because they
are sites for social communication.
Specifically, Facebook can be used as
a forum for classroom discussion.
131. Cont…
• (v) Virtual Game Worlds are online
platforms where users can virtually
participate in games via personalized
avatars in virtual worlds. World of
Warcraft is the famous virtual game
world.
132. Cont…
• (vi)Virtual Social Worlds: This type allows
Internet users to choose personalized avatars,
their behaviours, their lives, and their acts in their
virtual lives that are similar to their real lives. For
teaching, the teacher can choose and design a
place or a virtual class and ask the class
participants to meet at the place for the class
discussion. The only difference is that the users
can do whatever they like in their virtual lives that
they cannot do in their real lives. Second Life is
the most famous site, and this site has a number
of teaching and learning applications.
133. Advantages of Using
Instructional Media
• (i) Best Motivator: They are the best motivators.
The students work with more interest and zeal.
They are more attractive.
• (ii) Antidote to the disease of verbal
instruction: They help to reduce verbatim. They
help in giving clear concepts and thus help to bring
accuracy in learning.
• (iii)Clear images: Clear images are formed when
students can learn through their senses such as
seeing, hearing, touching, tasting and smelling.
• (iv)Vicarious experience: It provides solution to
many inaccessible objects and phenomena that
are dangerous to human.
134. Cont…
• (v) Variety: Instructional media
gives variety and provides different
tools in the hands of the teacher.
• (vi) Opportunities to handle and
manipulate: It offers opportunities to
students to handle and manipulate
things.
• (vii) Retentivity: Instructional
media contribute to increased
retention as they stimulate response
135. Cont…
• (viii) Based on maxims of
teaching: The use of Instructional
media enables the teachers to follow
the maxims of teaching like ‘concrete
to abstract, known to unknown and
learning by doing.
• (ix) Helpful in attracting
attention: It helps the teacher in
providing proper environment for
capturing as well as sustaining the
136. Cont…
• (x) Saving of energy and time: A good
deal of energy and time of both the
teachers and students can be saved on
account of the use of instructional media
as most of the concepts and phenomenon
may be easily clarified, understood and
assimilated through their use.
• (xi) Realism: The use of instructional
media provides a touch of reality to the
learning situation. By watching a movie,
students learn more effectively in about 1
137. Cont…
• (xii) Meeting individual differences:
There are wide individual differences
among learners. The use of variety of
Instructional media helps in meeting the
needs of different types of students.
• (xiii) Encouragement to healthy
classroom interaction: It encourages
active participation of the students, and
provides vicarious experiences,
encourages healthy classroom interaction
for the effective realization of teaching -
138. Cont…
• (xiv) Spread of education on a
mass scale: Instructional media like
radio, television and internet help in
providing opportunities for education
to people living in remote areas.
139. Cont…
• (xv) Positive environment for
creative discipline: A balanced
rational and scientific use of
instructional media develop
motivation, attracts the attention and
interests of the students and provides
a variety of creative outlets for the
utilization of their tremendous energy
and thus keeps them busy in the
classroom work. In this way, the
140. Limitations of Instructional
Media
• (i) Apathy of the teachers: Teachers in general are yet
to be convinced that teaching with words alone is very
tedious, wasteful and ineffective.
• (ii) Financial hurdles: financial difficulty from government
can affects the use of instructional media.
• (iii) Absence of electricity: Most of the projectors, Radio
and TV cannot work without the electricity which is not
available in large number of schools.
• (iv) Language difficulty: Most educational films are in
English language.
• (v) Not catering to local needs: Little attention is paid in
the production of Instructional media to local sociological,
psychological and pedagogical factors.
• (vi) Improper selection media: Instructional media are not
selected according to the classroom needs.
143. • 1. Task factor:
• (a) Objectives: different objectives
require different instructional method
which in turn will demand different media
characteristics
• (b) Learning outcomes
• (c) learned capability
• (d) learning experience
• (e) content variables
• (f) Type of stimuli
• (g) sense, or reception characteristics
144. • 2. Learner factors:
• (a) Group size and location: there are
certain media that are best suited for large
audience while there are those for small
audience or even individual. Also the type
of location will determine the media
characteristics.
• (b) Intellectual abilities: Teenagers cannot
benefits from computers as adult probably
they lack the requisite intellectual abilities
to comprehend computer language.
• (c) Cognitive styles: Poor readers will learn
better from spoken or recorded words than
145. Cont…
• (d) Students interests and preferences:
Learners differ in their preference for
learning by observing/by listening (Visual
learners/aural learners)
• (e) Age: Young children seldom attend to
one style of presentation for than a few
minutes, while adults may attend for
hours.
146. • 3. Instructional Management Factors
• (a) Instructional strategy/method: different
media may not be a equally good as
performing different instructional functions.
• (b) Response demand: How do you want
your students to respond to stimuli
presentation – it is through spoken
word/aural, a written word etc.
• (c) Degree of Teacher Control
• (d) Instructional events
147. • 4. Economic factors
• (a) Cost of hardware - can you afford to buy a
computer
• (b) Cost of software – can you procure requisite
“language” to accompany the hardware
• (c) Production – can you produce your materials
locally if you cannot afford to buy one? Can you
improvise? How much time will be required to
locate or prepare each item?
• (d) Maintenance – can you maintain your
equipment?
• (e) Staff training – can you handle the
equipment yourself?
148. • 5. Technical factors
• (a) Technical quality – Is it standardized
technically?
• (b) Ease of handling – can you operate it?
• (c) Compatibility – Is it handy? Can you
pack it after usage?
• (d) Flexibility of use – can it be used in
varied ways?
• (e) Durability – can it be used for long?
149. • 6. Administrative factors
• (a) availability – does the needed material
already exist in suitable
• (b) management of media resources form
and quality?
• (c) School architecture and equipment –
what is the physical arrangement of your
school buildings and classrooms?
150. FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN
USING MEDIA IN THE CLASSROOM
• For proper integration of media into
teaching – learning process, the
following factors should be
considered:
• (i) Consider the physical climate of
the classroom i.e. the seating
arrangement, temperature and
ventilation, lighting, and orderly
movement of groups to and from the
classroom, and within the classroom.
151. Cont…
• (ii) Consider individual needs of the
students i.e., take into consideration
the physical disabilities of learners,
that is, poor vision, hearing, dyslexia,
colour blindness, etc. Be aware of the
ability range within the classroom.
• (iii)Prepare and have available all
needed media, text, etc, for
presentation and related teaching
activities in advance.
152. Cont…
• (iv)Organize the classroom so that the
distribution of materials to be used
during the lesson is made before the
lesson.
• (v) Create, a readiness for learning,
introduce the learning content, it
purpose, what student may expect
and teach possibly the new words,
new terminology, and new ideas to
come about.
153. Cont…
• (vii) Present the materials. Try to
maintain eye contact with the class
when possible in order to supply the
missing human touch of the
engineering model of the
communication system.
• (viii) Make a follow-up after the
lesson by organizing the class into
established groups to summarize
lesson and to coordinate and carry out
154. FACTORS OF METHODS, MEDIA SELECTION,
TIME AND EVALUATION IN INSTRUCTIONAL
SYSTEM DESIGN
AND DEVELOPMENT
155. Factor of Methods
• A question on how this lesson/topic
should be taught so that learners learn
is one question that
• could be answered by reflecting on
the use of appropriate methods for
teaching. It is one thing
• for a teacher to know what he/she
wants to teach (content/subject
matter), it is another thing for him/her
'to choose and use appropriate
156. Method Peculiarities
• The choice of a method of teaching
has its own peculiarities which are
therefore unique to each
• one. For instance, some methods can
be used by the teacher absolutely
while some will naturally
• call for the involvement of both the
teacher and the learners. Generally,
methods can be classified into two in
terms of the degree of control by the
157. Factors of Media Selection
• The teacher, being the instructional
system designer, has a wide variety of
materials from which
• to select. Such factors like: media
appropriateness, quality, quantity,
size, ease of use, etc. need be
considered in the choice of media for
any give lesson. It is imperative for the
teacher to consider the time that the
lesson will last so as to be able to
158. Factor of Space
• Most teaching-learning process takes
place in the classrooms. For teaching
to produce desirable
• outcome (learning), adequate space is
needed. The available space for
teaching and learning should therefore
be large enough to allow for free
movement of the teachers in and
around the
• classroom. Pupils should also be free
159. Factor of Time
• Time determines a lot of things in the
design of an instructional system. An
instructional system designer is
interested in knowing when instruction
will take place. The duration of the
lesson, the time allocated for the
introductory/opening aspect of the
lesson; lesson delivery, and time that
learners are to be involved. The time
for evaluation is also important.
160. Factor of Evaluation
• As a term, evaluation is a value laden
concept. This is because it naturally
leads to making judgement on things
already done or being done. In terms
of instructional design system,
evaluation is used to evaluate the
totality of the effectiveness of the
entire teaching-learning system. In
other words, the teacher, the
objective(s), the learners, the
161. Types of Evaluation
• Generally speaking, there are two
types of evaluation, namely: formative
and summative evaluation. You must
have come across teachers who will
not ask you or the class questions
until the end of the lesson. Also, you
must have learnt that prior to the
introduction of the continuous
assessment in the Nigerian education
system, what we had was a one-shot
163. Criterion for Selecting
Instructional Materials
• (i) Objective of Instruction: Learning
objectives are categorised as cognitive,
affective or psychomotor. Instructional
materials should be selected to match the
learning outcomes.
• (ii) Learners Characteristics: This
involves the consideration of learners’
ability, age, experience, physical ability, and
socio-economic background in the choice of
media. Furthermore, learners’ aural ability,
perceptual ability, sense of touch, among
others should also be considered.
164. Cont…
• (iii)Media Validation: Validation
refers to the situation where a medium
has been proved relevant for a
particular learning situation. However,
where there are existing materials
which their validity have been proved,
such materials should be selected first
before other materials which have not
been proved through validation.
165. Cont…
• (vi)Content Validation: Instructional
materials may be chosen based on
the fact that the content is valid,
current, and integrates as many as
possible media.
• (v) The Visual Quality: Where a
medium or media has/have visual
components, it should bold enough for
learners to see without any difficulty.
166. Cont…
• (vi)The Aural Quality: This referred to
the sound quality of a media. Where
sound is necessary, it should be good
enough for instructional use. The
quality of sound can be judged based
on the volume, the clarity of
information and fidelity of the sound
(truthfulness of the sound). The sound
should not be deceitful.
167. Cont…
• (vii) Time Fit: Materials or media used
for instruction should be based on specify
time frame. Where a material will not be
good enough for allotted time such material
should not be used. It is better to choose
simplest and time saving materials.
• (viii) Time for Media Preparation: Time
available for preparation and presentation
may also determine selection of media.
Rushed or inadequate preparation can
result in poor or ineffective presentation and
can ruin the effectiveness of an instructional
168. Cont…
• (ix) Resources: Instructional materials should be
chosen if the necessary human and material
resources are available. Human resources include
skills required for successful integration of media
and technical help if something goes wrong.
• (x) Obsolescence: Where hardware or materials
are to be selected, a teacher must select
appropriate update material. This can only be done
through constant information sourcing from
journals, magazines, and materials catalogue.
Fellow instructors may also serve as useful source
of information. Obsolete materials should not be
used except where you are using archive materials
169. Cont…
• (xi) Portability: Where materials are to be
carried from the store to the classroom
setting, materials should be such that will
be carried easily by the teacher. However,
this can be taken care of where there is a
standard viewing or listening studio.
• (xii) Group Size: Instructional materials
must be large or loud enough for the whole
group to see or ear. Tiny textual materials,
video or televisions television presentations
and computer screens can be frustrating
and act inhibitors for learning.
170. Cont…
• (xiii) Durability: This is the ability of the
material to withstand wear and tear. The quality
of the product, the management and handling of
the product, the maintenance of the product, the
environmental use and many others must be
considered.
• (xiv)Cannibalization: This is the ability of
changing a part of equipment (faulty equipment)
to another faulty one so that one out of the two
faulty equipments will be working effectively.
This can be achieved if the two equipments are
of the same product or from the same maker.
171. Cont…
• (xv) Systematization: Where equipment are
brought in a large quantity, efforts should be made
to buy materials which are relevant to early
acquired one. Therefore, a material from the same
maker will be better for a centre. This will give
opportunity for cannibalization.
• (xvi) Manageability: This referred to the
opportunity which the equipment afford the user in
manipulating it easily. Material or equipment that
needs special abilities for users to be able to use,
such equipment may not be the best choice.
Meanwhile, equipment or material which are easy
172. Cont…
• (xvii) Reparability: At a certain point in time,
equipment may develop fault, such equipment
will need immediate repair for it to be useful in
the classroom again. Once you consider
whether equipment can easily be repaired within
your locality, you should also consider whether
an expert who may not be available at that point
in time or whether the accessories or materials
required for repairing such equipment is
available.
173. Cont…
• (xviii) Response or Involvement
Characteristics: Where learners are
involved in learning, learning
outcomes and learning gains are
much more higher than where
learners are not involved. Materials
that gives learners opportunity to be
involve in learning should be
considered above those ones where
learners would be made passive or
174. Cont…
• (xix) The Cost of the Materials: Cost may
also be important as available fund may
determine the choice of media. Some
instructional materials/media cost very little
to prepare. Since the resources are limited,
it is important to consider available
resources when equipment are to be
purchased. Where there are two equally
good equipment, the cheapest one should
be considered, this should be done in
relation to the manageability, durability and
repairability of the equipment.
175. Cont…
• (xx) The Usefulness or The
Relevant of Content: The content of
a material should be a determining
factor on whether to use or not to use
a given material. Relevance should be
determined on the basis of material
relevance in terms of the culture of the
audience, coverage of the area of
interest, among others.
176. Cont…
• (xxi) Replicability: This is the ability to
reproduce more of a given material as this
will ensure back-up copies. (i.e. the one
which has ability to produce more copies).
• (xxii) Practicability: Instructional materials
should be selected based on the
practicality of using it. Practicality involves
the consideration of other factors
(availability of resources, facilities and
time, the cost, and ease of transport,
setting up and use).
178. • An instructional design model gives
structure and meaning to an I.D.
problem, enabling the would-be
designer to negotiate her design task
with a semblance of conscious
understanding.
•
• Models help us to visualize the
problem, to break it down into
discrete, manageable units.
179. Cont…
• A system is a set of interrelated and
sometimes directly interdependent
things, principles or parts that work
severally and jointly within a given
setting for the attainment of a definite
goal or set of goals (Ogwo, 1996)
180. The ADDIE Model
• The ADDIE model’s
five phases –
Analysis, Design,
Development,
Implementation and
Evaluation –
represent a dynamic,
flexible guide for
building effective
training and
181. Cont…
• 1. ANALYSIS: In the analysis phase,
the instructional problem is clarified,
the instructional goals and objectives
are defined; the learning environment
is identified; and a clear
understanding of the “gaps” between
the desired outcomes or behaviours
and the learner’s existing knowledge
and skills is identified. Below are
some questions that are addressed
182. Cont…
• Who is the audience and what are their
characteristics?
• Identification of the desired outcome or
behaviour.
• What types of learning constraints exist?
• What are the delivery options?
• What are the pedagogical considerations?
• What is the timeline for project completion?
• What exactly is the (performance) problem?
• How do you know there is even a problem?
• Why is it a problem?
183. 2. DESIGN:
• 2. DESIGN: This step deals with the selection of
an instructional approach, learning objectives,
assessment instruments, exercises, content,
subject matter analysis, lesson planning and
media selection. The design phase should be
systematic and specific.
• The steps used for the design phase include:
(i)Documentation of the project’s instructional,
visual and technical design strategy.
(ii) Application of instructional strategies according
to the intended outcomes.
(iii) A description of the problem.
184. Cont…
• (v) Designing the user interface and
user experience.
• (vi)Creation of a prototype.
• (vii) Application of a visual or graphic
design.
185. Cont…
3. DEVELOP: The development phase is where
the developers create and assemble the content
assets (materials, resources, technologies, tests
etc.) that were created in the design phase.
Technologies, if applicable, are developed
and/or integrated. The project is reviewed and
revised according to any feedback given.
186. Cont…
• 4. IMPLEMENT: During the
implementation phase, materials are
distributed to learners and a
procedure for training the facilitators
and the learners is developed. The
facilitators’ training should cover the
course curriculum, learning outcomes,
method of delivery, and testing
procedures. Preparation of the
learners include training them how to
187. Cont…
• 5. EVALUATE AND REVISE: The
evaluation phase consists of two
parts: formative and summative.
Formative evaluation is present in
each stage of the ADDIE process. The
summative evaluation determines the
adequacy of the distributed materials
in achieving the course objectives and
provides opportunities for feedback
from the users.
188. ASSURE Model
• Heinich, Molenda, Russell & Smaldino
• Classroom orientation
• Note the selection of materials instead
of development
• The ASSURE Model is a constructivist
approach to training design developed
by Robert Heinich and Michael
Molenda of Indiana University and
James D. Russell of Purdue University
in the 1990′s.
• A= Analyse Learner
• S= State Objectives
• S= S = Select Methods, Media and
Materials
• U= Utilize media and materials
• R= R = Require Learner Participation
• E=
189. Cont…
• A = Analyze Learners
• Prerequisite skills or knowledge
• What courses are taken prior to this
one? What knowledge is assumed?
• Learning Styles of the students – This
model emphasizes teaching for
different learning styles.
• Motivations – Why is the learner
taking the course?
190. S = State Objectives
• Objectives are descriptions of the learning
outcomes and are written using the ABCD
format.
• Audience: Who is the audience? Specifies
the learner(s) for whom the objective is
intended.
• Behavior: What do you want them to do?
The behavior or capability needs to be
demonstrated as learner performance, an
observable, measurable behavior, or a real-
world skill. Use an action verb from the
helpful verbs list if you have difficulty doing
191. Cont…
• Condition: Under what circumstances or
conditions are the learners to demonstrate the
skill being taught? Be sure to include equipment,
tools, aids, or references the learner may or may
not use, and/or special environmental conditions
in which the learner has to perform.
• Degree: How well do you want them to
demonstrate their mastery? Degree to which the
new skill must be mastered or the criterion for
acceptable performance (include time limit,
range of accuracy, proportion of correct
responses required, and/or qualitative
standards.)
192. S = Select Methods, Media
and Materials
• You need to decide what method you
will primarily use to support the
learning objectives: for example:
lectures, online collaboration, group
work, a field trip, etc.
• What media you will use: photos,
multimedia, video?
• Are you using store bought materials,
getting an outside resource to provide
materials, modifying something you
193. Cont…
• Selection Criteria: Media Selection
• - Media should be selected on the basis of
student need.
• - We must consider the total learning situation.
• - Should follow learning objectives.
• - Must be appropriate for the teaching format.
• - Should be consistent with the students’
capabilities and learning styles.
• - Should be chosen objectively.
• - Should be selected in order to best meet the
learning outcomes.
• - No single medium is the total solution.
194. Cont…
• - Does it match the curriculum?
• - Is it accurate and current?
• - Does it contain clear and concise language?
• - Will it motivate and maintain interest?
• - Does it provide for learner participation?
• - Is it of good technical quality?
• - Is there evidence of its effectiveness (e.g., field-
test results)?
• - Is it free from objectionable bias and advertising
• - Is a user guide or other documentation included?
Plan how you are going to implement your media and
materials.
195. U = Utilize Media and
Materials
• In order to utilize materials correctly there are
several steps to creating good student-centered
instruction.
• 1. Preview the material- Never use anything in
class you haven’t thoroughly verified.
• 2. Prepare the material- Make sure you have
everything you need and that it all works.
• 3. Prepare the environment- Set up the
classroom so that whatever you’re doing will
work in the space you have.
196. Cont…
• 4. Prepare the learners- Give the
students an overview, explain how
they can take this information and use
it and how they will be evaluated up
front.
• 5. Provide the learning experience-
Teaching is simply high theatre.
Showmanship is part of the facilitator’s
job. Teaching and learning should be
an experience not an ordeal.
197. R = Require Learner
Participation
• Describe how you are going to get
each learner “actively and individually
involved in the lesson. Ex: games,
group work, presentations, etc.
• All activities should provide
opportunities to manipulate the
information and allow time for practice
during the demonstration of the skill.
198. E = Evaluate and Revise
• Describe how you will evaluate and measure
whether or not the lesson objectives were met.
Were the media and the instruction effective?
• Evaluate student performance: How will you
determine whether or not they met the lesson’s
objective? The evaluation should match the
objective. Some objectives can be adequately
assessed with a pen and paper test. If the
objectives call for demonstrating a process,
creating a product, or developing an attitude, the
evaluation will frequently require observing the
behavior in action.
•
199. Cont…
• Evaluate media components: How
will you determine the media
effectiveness?
• Evaluate instructor performance:
How will you determine whether or not
your own performance as
instructor/facilitator was effective?
