Inexpensive Instructional Materials Lecture 4

1. PREPARATION OF INEXPENSIVE
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Educational Technology Department,
School of Science and Technology Education (SSTE),
Federal University of Technology, Minna
(c) 2024
Prof. GAMBARI, Amosa Isiaka
E-mail: gambari@futminna.edu.ng
Phone No: +234 803 689 7955

2. FACTORS AFFECTING INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA SELECTION

3. • 1. Task factor:
• (a) Objectives: different objectives
require different instructional method
which in turn will demand different media
characteristics
• (b) Learning outcomes
• (c) learned capability
• (d) learning experience
• (e) content variables
• (f) Type of stimuli
• (g) sense, or reception characteristics

4. • 2. Learner factors:
• (a) Group size and location: there are
certain media that are best suited for large
audience while there are those for small
audience or even individual. Also the type
of location will determine the media
characteristics.

5. • 2. Learner factors:
• (b) Intellectual abilities: Teenagers cannot
benefits from computers as adult probably
they lack the requisite intellectual abilities
to comprehend computer language.
• (c) Cognitive styles: Poor readers will learn
better from spoken or recorded words than
from printed materials.

6. Cont…
• (d) Students interests and preferences:
Learners differ in their preference for
learning by observing/by listening (Visual
learners/aural learners)
• (e) Age: Young children seldom attend to
one style of presentation for than a few
minutes, while adults may attend for
hours.

7. • 3. Instructional Management Factors
• (a) Instructional strategy/method: different
media may not be a equally good as
performing different instructional functions.
• (b) Response demand: How do you want
your students to respond to stimuli
presentation – it is through spoken
word/aural, a written word etc.
• (c) Degree of Teacher Control
• (d) Instructional events

8. • 4. Economic factors
• (a) Cost of hardware - can you afford to buy a
computer
• (b) Cost of software – can you procure requisite
“language” to accompany the hardware
• (c) Production – can you produce your materials
locally if you cannot afford to buy one? Can you
improvise? How much time will be required to
locate or prepare each item?
• (d) Maintenance – can you maintain your
equipment?
• (e) Staff training – can you handle the
equipment yourself?

9. • 5. Technical factors
• (a) Technical quality – Is it standardized
technically?
• (b) Ease of handling – can you operate it?
• (c) Compatibility – Is it handy? Can you
pack it after usage?
• (d) Flexibility of use – can it be used in
varied ways?
• (e) Durability – can it be used for long?

10. • 6. Administrative factors
• (a) availability – does the needed material
already exist in suitable
• (b) management of media resources form
and quality?
• (c) School architecture and equipment –
what is the physical arrangement of your
school buildings and classrooms?

11. FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN
USING MEDIA IN THE CLASSROOM
• For proper integration of media into
teaching – learning process, the
following factors should be
considered:
• (i) Consider the physical climate of
the classroom i.e. the seating
arrangement, temperature and
ventilation, lighting, and orderly
movement of groups to and from the
classroom, and within the classroom.

12. Cont…
• (ii) Consider individual needs of the
students i.e., take into consideration
the physical disabilities of learners,
that is, poor vision, hearing, dyslexia,
colour blindness, etc. Be aware of the
ability range within the classroom.
• (iii)Prepare and have available all
needed media, text, etc, for
presentation and related teaching
activities in advance.

13. Cont…
• (iv)Organize the classroom so that the
distribution of materials to be used
during the lesson is made before the
lesson.
• (v) Create, a readiness for learning,
introduce the learning content, it
purpose, what student may expect
and teach possibly the new words,
new terminology, and new ideas to
come about.

14. Cont…
• (vi)During the lesson, move about the
classroom to see that students
understand and are using media
properly.
• (vii) Present the materials. Try to
maintain eye contact with the class
when possible in order to supply the
missing human touch of the
engineering model of the
communication system.

15. Cont…
• (viii) Make a follow-up after the
lesson by organizing the class into
established groups to summarize
lesson and to coordinate and carry out
further learning activities.

16. FACTORS OF METHODS, MEDIA SELECTION,
TIME AND EVALUATION IN INSTRUCTIONAL
SYSTEM DESIGN
AND DEVELOPMENT

17. Factor of Methods
• A question on how this lesson/topic should
be taught so that learners learn is one
question that
• could be answered by reflecting on the use
of appropriate methods for teaching. It is
one thing
• for a teacher to know what he/she wants to
teach (content/subject matter), it is another
thing for him/her 'to choose and use
appropriate methods.

18. Factor of Methods
• It is because of this reason that teachers
are expected to be very vast in knowledge
about methodology. Whereas, methods are
vehicles
• through which information is presented to
make it easily learned by the students.
Methodology is the study of methods, and
in this case, our concern is various methods
of teaching. Egunjobi,
• Olude, Shehu and Mu’azu (2005) refer to
methodology as the study and practice of
various methods of teaching.

19. Method Peculiarities
• The choice of a method of teaching has its own
peculiarities which are therefore unique to each
one.
For instance, some methods can be used by the
teacher absolutely while some will naturally call
for the involvement of both the teacher and the
learners. Generally, methods can be classified
into two in terms of the degree of control by the
teacher and the learner in the teaching – learning
process. These are:
• (i) Teacher-centred methods, and
• (ii) Learner-centred methods

20. Factors of Media Selection
• The teacher, being the instructional system
designer, has a wide variety of materials from
which to select. Such factors like:
• media appropriateness,
• quality,
• quantity,
• size,
• ease of use, etc. need be considered in the
choice of media for any give lesson. It is
imperative for the teacher to consider the
time that the lesson will last so as to be able
to determine the quantity of materials to
utilise.

21. Factors of Media Selection
• She/he has to consider the appropriateness of
the media to the choice of the method(s)
• and selected instructional strategies must be
considered. The teacher should consider the
role(s) of the learners during the instructional
process in terms of learners’ access to the
media. These tasks are necessary to ensure
effective media mix during instructional
delivery.

22. Factors of Media Selection
• It should be stated that, no single medium can
teach a particular concept/topic from the point of
analytical teaching.
• By analytical teaching we mean the adoption of
a systematic approach to the whole business of
instruction.
• This is a way of breaking down the topic into
various units.
• Efforts are to be made to identify
relevant/appropriate instructional medium/media
for the teaching of each of the units.

23. Factors of Media Selection
• You are to note therefore that the issue of what
media to select and use in any teaching-learning
process goes beyond making a decision by
simply considering the topic on its face value.
The implication of this to you as a teacher is that
you need to develop what is called systems
view.
•
• You should also be ready to apply the concept of
multimedia utilisation in instruction. Multimedia
utilisation as a term means “the use of a variety
of instructional materials during teaching and
learning process”.

24. Factors of Media Selection
• It allows for combination of different family of
media such as: the use of the radio plus the
posters or charts, the use of real objectives
(realia) plus photographs to teach. Only a skillful
teacher can do this successfully as it calls for
expertise. The use of variety of media as calls
for the ability to manage time effectively.

25. Factor of Space
• Most teaching-learning process takes place
in the classrooms. For teaching to produce
desirable outcome (learning), adequate
space is needed.
• The available space for teaching and
learning should therefore be large enough
to allow for free movement of the teachers
in and around the classroom.
• Pupils should also be free to move about.
The space must be sufficiently large to
accommodate learning activities and the
furniture.

26. Factor of Space
Pupils’ comfort should not be mortgaged as
the overcrowded class will make independent
study, small group study; dramatization
especially structured one difficult. In places
where there are no separate laboratories for
the teaching of science subjects, especially in
primary schools, practical exercises will be
difficult since practicals are essential in most
teaching subjects, large space should be
created for learners’ comfort.

27. Factor of Time
• Time determines a lot of things in the design of an
instructional system. An instructional system
designer is interested in knowing when instruction
will take place. The duration of the lesson, the time
allocated for the introductory/opening aspect of the
lesson; lesson delivery, and time that learners are
to be involved.
• The time for evaluation is also important. Precision
is the key word even when there may be variation
in the accomplishment of what is being planned on
paper and the actual live classroom experience. It
is expected that a good teacher will manage time
well.

28. Factor of Evaluation
• As a term, evaluation is a value laden
concept. This is because it naturally leads to
making judgement on things already done or
being done. In terms of instructional design
system, evaluation is used to evaluate the
totality of the effectiveness of the entire
teaching-learning system. In other words, the
teacher, the objective(s), the learners, the
methods, the instructional media and the
environment that are involved in the whole
business of instructional process are
• evaluated with a view to determining their
effectiveness or otherwise.

29. Factor of Evaluation
• The main purpose of evaluation is to identify
area(s) of weakness and provision of
corrective measures. The ultimate objective,
according to Balogun and Abimbade (2002),
is to improve the quality and quantity of what
is learned by students.
• If evaluation is properly carried out, it assists
all the stakeholders in one way or the other.
For the teacher, he/she is able to ascertain
the degree of understanding, and mastery of
the purported imparted knowledge, skills and
attitude.

30. Factor of Evaluation
• It also affords him/her the opportunity of
measuring how far the stated objective(s)
have been accomplished. You will realise
that evaluation serves as quality control
device. This is because through it, areas of
weaknesses are identified for immediate
corrections while efforts are made towards
rectifying other difficult areas of the design.

31. Factor of Evaluation
• To the learners, evaluation assists them to
wake up from their slumber as through it,
they have
• the opportunity of determining whether they
have gained or not from the teaching-
learning process. It gives room for the
individual self-assessment while it also
encourages the weaker
• learners to seek further assistance.

32. Types of Evaluation
• Generally speaking, there are two types of
evaluation, namely: formative and
summative evaluation. You must have
come across teachers who will not ask you
or the class questions until the end of the
lesson. Also, you must have learnt that prior
to the introduction of the continuous
assessment in the Nigerian education
system, what we had was a one-shot
examination that used to come up at the
end of the term.

33. Types of Evaluation
• Thus, in an academic session of three terms,
learners were subjected to two (2) terminals
and one (1) end-of-year examinations. It
should be mentioned that during that time,
for a pupil to be promoted or not, his/her
past academic records, no matter how good
or bad, were never used. Instead, it was the
overall academic performance of the learner
that was used. This is typical of what is
called summative evaluation. However,
formative evaluation is not a one-shot type of
evaluation, rather it is continuous, systematic
and its results are cumulative.

34. Selection of Media

35. Criterion for Selecting Instructional
Materials
• (i) Objective of Instruction: Learning
objectives are categorised as cognitive,
affective or psychomotor. Instructional
materials should be selected to match the
learning outcomes.
• (ii) Learners Characteristics: This involves
the consideration of learners’ ability, age,
experience, physical ability, and socio-
economic background in the choice of
media. Furthermore, learners’ aural ability,
perceptual ability, sense of touch, among
others should also be considered.

36. Cont…
• (iii)Media Validation: Validation
refers to the situation where a medium
has been proved relevant for a
particular learning situation. However,
where there are existing materials
which their validity have been proved,
such materials should be selected first
before other materials which have not
been proved through validation.

37. Cont…
• (vi)Content Validation: Instructional
materials may be chosen based on
the fact that the content is valid,
current, and integrates as many as
possible media.
• (v) The Visual Quality: Where a
medium or media has/have visual
components, it should bold enough for
learners to see without any difficulty.

38. Cont…
• (vi)The Aural Quality: This referred to
the sound quality of a media. Where
sound is necessary, it should be good
enough for instructional use. The
quality of sound can be judged based
on the volume, the clarity of
information and fidelity of the sound
(truthfulness of the sound). The sound
should not be deceitful.

39. Cont…
• (vii)Time Fit: Materials or media used for
instruction should be based on specify time
frame. Where a material will not be good
enough for allotted time such material
should not be used. It is better to choose
simplest and time saving materials.

40. Cont…
• (viii) Time for Media Preparation: Time
available for preparation and presentation
may also determine selection of media.
Rushed or inadequate preparation can
result in poor or ineffective presentation and
can ruin the effectiveness of an instructional
material.

41. Cont…
• (ix) Resources: Instructional materials should be
chosen if the necessary human and material
resources are available. Human resources include
skills required for successful integration of media
and technical help if something goes wrong.

42. Cont…
• (x) Obsolescence: Where hardware or materials
are to be selected, a teacher must select
appropriate update material. This can only be done
through constant information sourcing from
journals, magazines, and materials catalogue.
Fellow instructors may also serve as useful source
of information. Obsolete materials should not be
used except where you are using archive materials
as examples.

43. Cont…
• (xi) Portability: Where materials are to be
carried from the store to the classroom
setting, materials should be such that will
be carried easily by the teacher. However,
this can be taken care of where there is a
standard viewing or listening studio.
• (xii) Group Size: Instructional materials
must be large or loud enough for the whole
group to see or ear. Tiny textual materials,
video or televisions television presentations
and computer screens can be frustrating
and act inhibitors for learning.

44. Cont…
• (xiii) Durability: This is the ability of the
material to withstand wear and tear. The quality
of the product, the management and handling of
the product, the maintenance of the product, the
environmental use and many others must be
considered.
• (xiv)Cannibalization: This is the ability of
changing a part of equipment (faulty equipment)
to another faulty one so that one out of the two
faulty equipments will be working effectively.
This can be achieved if the two equipments are
of the same product or from the same maker.

45. Cont…
• (xv) Systematization: Where equipment are
brought in a large quantity, efforts should be made
to buy materials which are relevant to early
acquired one. Therefore, a material from the same
maker will be better for a centre. This will give
opportunity for cannibalization.
• (xvi) Manageability: This referred to the
opportunity which the equipment afford the user in
manipulating it easily. Material or equipment that
needs special abilities for users to be able to use,
such equipment may not be the best choice.
Meanwhile, equipment or material which are easy
for user to manipulate should be given highest
priority.

46. Cont…
• (xvii) Reparability: At a certain point in time,
equipment may develop fault, such equipment
will need immediate repair for it to be useful in
the classroom again. Once you consider
whether equipment can easily be repaired within
your locality, you should also consider whether
an expert who may not be available at that point
in time or whether the accessories or materials
required for repairing such equipment is
available.

47. Cont…
• (xviii) Response or Involvement
Characteristics: Where learners are
involved in learning, learning outcomes and
learning gains are much more higher than
where learners are not involved. Materials
that gives learners opportunity to be involve
in learning should be considered above
those ones where learners would be made
passive or inactive.

48. Cont…
• (xix) The Cost of the Materials: Cost may
also be important as available fund may
determine the choice of media. Some
instructional materials/media cost very little to
prepare. Since the resources are limited, it is
important to consider available resources
when equipment are to be purchased. Where
there are two equally good equipment, the
cheapest one should be considered, this
should be done in relation to the
manageability, durability and repairability of
the equipment.

49. Cont…
• (xx) The Usefulness or The
Relevant of Content: The content of
a material should be a determining
factor on whether to use or not to use
a given material. Relevance should be
determined on the basis of material
relevance in terms of the culture of the
audience, coverage of the area of
interest, among others.

50. Cont…
• (xxi) Replicability: This is the ability to
reproduce more of a given material as this
will ensure back-up copies. (i.e. the one
which has ability to produce more copies).
• (xxii) Practicability: Instructional materials
should be selected based on the
practicality of using it. Practicality involves
the consideration of other factors
(availability of resources, facilities and
time, the cost, and ease of transport,
setting up and use).

51. INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEM
DESIGN MODELS

52. • An instructional design model gives structure
and meaning to an I.D. problem, enabling the
would-be designer to negotiate her design task
with a semblance of conscious understanding.
• Models help us to visualize the problem, to
break it down into discrete, manageable units.
• The value of a specific model is determined
within the context of use. Like any other
instrument, a model assumes a specific
intention of its user. A model should be judged
by how it mediates the designer's intention,
how well it can share a work load, and how
effectively it shifts focus away from itself toward
the object of the design activity.

53. • Models, like other tools, shape the
consciousness of those who use them. The
tool molds the wielder who molds the tool, ad
infinitum. Our models frame the reality we
impose on the world and the experience that
is forged out of their use brings us to higher
levels of understanding about the design
problem, but only within the framework of the
specific models we adopt.
• What are Instructional Design Models?
• Prescriptive set of procedures for developing
instructional materials
• A method for the organization and
management of the process

54. • What is Instructional Design?
• As you work your way through the design
models below, ask yourself the following
questions:
• Who are my learners?.............Learner
Profile
• What are their needs?.............Goals and
Objectives
• What tools do I need?.............Content
• How can I solve their needs?...Strategy
• Is the strategy working or should I change
it?...Evaluation and Revision

55. Cont…
• A system is a set of interrelated and
sometimes directly interdependent
things, principles or parts that work
severally and jointly within a given
setting for the attainment of a definite
goal or set of goals (Ogwo, 1996)

56. The ADDIE Model
• The ADDIE model’s
five phases – Analysis,
Design, Development,
Implementation and
Evaluation – represent
a dynamic, flexible
guide for building
effective training and
performance support
tools.

57. Cont…
• 1. ANALYSIS: In the analysis phase, the
instructional problem is clarified, the
instructional goals and objectives are
defined; the learning environment is
identified; and a clear understanding of
the “gaps” between the desired
outcomes or behaviours and the
learner’s existing knowledge and skills is
identified. Below are some questions that
are addressed during the analysis
phase:

58. Cont…
• Who is the audience and what are their
characteristics?
• Identification of the desired outcome or
behaviour.
• What types of learning constraints exist?
• What are the delivery options?
• What are the pedagogical considerations?
• What is the timeline for project completion?
• What exactly is the (performance) problem?
• How do you know there is even a problem?
• Why is it a problem?

59. 2. DESIGN:
• 2. DESIGN: This step deals with the selection of
an instructional approach, learning objectives,
assessment instruments, exercises, content,
subject matter analysis, lesson planning and
media selection. The design phase should be
systematic and specific.
• The steps used for the design phase include:
(i)Documentation of the project’s instructional,
visual and technical design strategy.
(ii) Application of instructional strategies according
to the intended outcomes.
(iii) A description of the problem.
(iv) Creation of storyboards.

60. Cont…
• (v) Designing the user interface and
user experience.
• (vi)Creation of a prototype.
• (vii) Application of a visual or graphic
design.

61. Cont…
3. DEVELOP: The development phase is where
the developers create and assemble the content
assets (materials, resources, technologies, tests
etc.) that were created in the design phase.
Technologies, if applicable, are developed
and/or integrated. The project is reviewed and
revised according to any feedback given.

62. Cont…
• 4. IMPLEMENT: During the implementation
phase, materials are distributed to learners
and a procedure for training the facilitators
and the learners is developed. The
facilitators’ training should cover the course
curriculum, learning outcomes, method of
delivery, and testing procedures. Preparation
of the learners include training them how to
use new tools (software or hardware, if
appropriate), and learner registration.

63. Cont…
• 5. EVALUATE AND REVISE: The
evaluation phase consists of two parts:
formative and summative. Formative
evaluation is present in each stage of the
ADDIE process. The summative evaluation
determines the adequacy of the distributed
materials in achieving the course objectives
and provides opportunities for feedback
from the users.

64. ASSURE Model
• Heinich, Molenda, Russell &
Smaldino
• Classroom orientation
• Note the selection of
materials instead of
development
• The ASSURE Model is a
constructivist approach to
training design developed by
Robert Heinich and Michael
Molenda of Indiana
University and James D.
Russell of Purdue University
in the 1990′s.

65. ASSURE Model
• A= Analyse Learner
• S= State Objectives
• S= S = Select
Methods, Media and
Materials
• U= Utilize media and
materials
• R= Require Learner
Participation
• E= Evaluation

66. Cont…
• A = Analyze Learners
• Prerequisite skills or knowledge
• What courses are taken prior to this
one? What knowledge is assumed?
• Learning Styles of the students – This
model emphasizes teaching for
different learning styles.
• Motivations – Why is the learner
taking the course?

67. S = State Objectives
• Objectives are descriptions of the learning
outcomes and are written using the ABCD
format.
• Audience: Who is the audience? Specifies the
learner(s) for whom the objective is intended.
• Behavior: What do you want them to do? The
behavior or capability needs to be
demonstrated as learner performance, an
observable, measurable behavior, or a real-
world skill. Use an action verb from the helpful
verbs list if you have difficulty doing this.

68. Cont…
• Condition: Under what circumstances or
conditions are the learners to demonstrate the skill
being taught? Be sure to include equipment, tools,
aids, or references the learner may or may not
use, and/or special environmental conditions in
which the learner has to perform.
• Degree: How well do you want them to
demonstrate their mastery? Degree to which the
new skill must be mastered or the criterion for
acceptable performance (include time limit, range
of accuracy, proportion of correct responses
required, and/or qualitative standards.)

69. S = Select Methods, Media
and Materials
• You need to decide what method you will
primarily use to support the learning
objectives: for example: lectures, online
collaboration, group work, a field trip, etc.
• What media you will use: photos,
multimedia, video?
• Are you using store bought materials,
getting an outside resource to provide
materials, modifying something you already
have, or develop something from scratch?

70. Cont…
• Selection Criteria: Media Selection
• - Media should be selected on the basis of
student need.
• - We must consider the total learning situation.
• - Should follow learning objectives.
• - Must be appropriate for the teaching format.
• - Should be consistent with the students’
capabilities and learning styles.
• - Should be chosen objectively.
• - Should be selected in order to best meet the
learning outcomes.
• - No single medium is the total solution.

71. Cont…
• - Does it match the curriculum?
• - Is it accurate and current?
• - Does it contain clear and concise language?
• - Will it motivate and maintain interest?
• - Does it provide for learner participation?
• - Is it of good technical quality?
• - Is there evidence of its effectiveness (e.g., field-
test results)?
• - Is it free from objectionable bias and advertising
• - Is a user guide or other documentation included?
Plan how you are going to implement your media and
materials.

72. U = Utilize Media and Materials
• In order to utilize materials correctly there are
several steps to creating good student-centered
instruction.
• 1. Preview the material- Never use anything in
class you haven’t thoroughly verified.
• 2. Prepare the material- Make sure you have
everything you need and that it all works.
• 3. Prepare the environment- Set up the
classroom so that whatever you’re doing will
work in the space you have.

73. Cont…
• 4. Prepare the learners- Give the
students an overview, explain how they
can take this information and use it and
how they will be evaluated up front.
• 5. Provide the learning experience-
Teaching is simply high theatre.
Showmanship is part of the facilitator’s
job. Teaching and learning should be
an experience not an ordeal.

74. R = Require Learner Participation
• Describe how you are going to get
each learner “actively and individually
involved in the lesson. Ex: games,
group work, presentations, etc.
• All activities should provide
opportunities to manipulate the
information and allow time for practice
during the demonstration of the skill.

75. E = Evaluate and Revise
• Describe how you will evaluate and measure
whether or not the lesson objectives were met.
Were the media and the instruction effective?
• Evaluate student performance: How will you
determine whether or not they met the lesson’s
objective? The evaluation should match the
objective. Some objectives can be adequately
assessed with a pen and paper test. If the
objectives call for demonstrating a process,
creating a product, or developing an attitude, the
evaluation will frequently require observing the
behavior in action.
•

76. Cont…
• Evaluate media components: How
will you determine the media
effectiveness?
• Evaluate instructor performance:
How will you determine whether or not
your own performance as
instructor/facilitator was effective?