The document provides an overview of key concepts in biology related to plants, bacteria, fungi, and protists. It covers their structures, characteristics, reproduction, ecological roles, and evolutionary relationships. Key topics include the six kingdoms of classification, phylogenetic trees, viral and bacterial structures and life cycles, fungal and protist nutrition, symbiotic relationships like lichens and nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and plant adaptations, structures, and life cycles.

2. Plantae – terrestrial, multicellular eukaryotes, photosynthetic organisms

3. Animalia – multicellular eukaryotes; have nerve cord and organs

4. Fungi – (molds, yeast, mushrooms) heterotrophic eukaryotes; have a body formed of mycelium

5. Protista – primarily unicellular, aquatic eukaryotes

6. Archea – microscopic unicellular prokaryotes

7. Bacteria/Eubacteria – unicellular prokaryotes; cell walls made of peptidoglycan

8. Phylogenetic Tree

9. Begins with common ancestor that contains primitive characteristics

10. Branches into lines of descent that contain derived characteristics

11. How do you trace phylogeny?

12. Fossil Records: dates fossils

13. Homology: shows similarities in characteristics

14. Molecular Data: protein, DNA, and RNA comparison

15. Viral Structure and Reproduction

16. Covering:

17. Capsid – protein coat

18. Envelope – made of host’s plasma membrane; not in all viruses

19. Inner Core:

20. DNA or RNA genome; proteins needed to produce DNA/RNA

21. Reproduction: (Lytic Cycle)

22. Attachment to host cell

23. Penetration of viral nucleic acid into host cell

24. Replication of viral nucleic acid

25. Assembly of components into new viruses

26. Release from host cell

27. Bacterial Structure and Characteristics

28. Cell Wall: composed of peptidoglycan

29. Gram Positive – thick walls composed mainly of peptidoglycan

30. Gram Negative – thing peptidoglycan later and outer membrane

31. Capsule: only some have it surrounding the cell wall

32. Pili: structure extending from cell to help in adhesion to one another or to surfaces

33. Flagella: consist of basal body, hook, and filament to produce rotary motion

34. Genetic Material:

35. One circular DNA molecule

36. One more plasmids (circular DNA fragments)

37. Most are Heterotrophs: obtain energy and carbon from other organisms

38. Chemoheterotrophs – free-living decomposers, obtain carbon and energy from dead organisms

39. Photoheterotrophs – obtain carbon from other organisms and have photosynthetic pigments that trap light energy

40. Some are autotrophs: make their own organic molecules

41. Photoautotrophs – obtain energy from sunlight

42. Chemoautotrophs – obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic chemicals such as ammonia

43. Commercial Importance

44. antibiotics

45. Cheese

46. Lactic Acid Bacteria: yogurt, pickles, olives, sauerkraut

47. Symbiosis:

48. Mutualism – both partners benefit

49. Commensalism – one partner benefits and the other is not harmer nor helped

50. Parasitism – parasite helped and host is harmed

51. Protists

52. Body Plans:

53. Unicellular

54. Colonies – loosely connected groups of cells

55. Coenocytes – multinucleate masses of cytoplasm

56. Multicellular

57. Method of Locomotion:

58. Pseudopodia

59. Flagella

60. Cilia

61. Some are nonmotile

62. Nutrition: protists obtain nutrition autotrophically or heterotrophically

63. Reproduction:

64. Both sexually and asexually

65. Only asexually

66. Antibiotics – many bacteria have become resistant to antibiotics

67. R factors – plasmids with genes for antibiotic resistance

68. Ecological Roles of Bacteria:

69. Decomposition, nitrogen cycle, mutualism with plants, and digestion

70. Species Name:

71. Genus

72. Specific epithet

73. Bacterial Reproduction:

74. Binary fission – cell divides, forming two cells

75. Budding – bud forms, separates from mother cell

76. Fragmentation – walls form inside cell and separates into several cells

77. Fungi: eukaryotic heterotrophs that absorb nutrients from their surroundings

78. Structure

79. Can be unicellular- yeast

80. Most are multicellular

81. Made up of mycelium – network of filaments called hyphae

82. Nonmotile

83. Reproduction

84. Sexually and asexually by spores

85. Fungi Nutrition:

86. Heterotroph

87. Secrete digestive enzymes onto food then absorb predigested food

88. Cell walls with chitin

89. Mycorrhizas:

90. Mutualistic relationship between soil and fungi roots of most plants

91. Plants grow best under this growing situation

92. Gives plants better absorptive surface for mineral intake

93. Fungus benefits by getting carbs from plant

94. Ecological Roles of Fungi:

95. Pathogens – opportunistic pathogens in humans

96. Ring worm, athletes foot, candidiasis, histoplasmosis

97. Toxins – some fungi produce mycotoxins

98. Aflatoxins that cause liver damage and cancer

99. Fungal Plant Infections

100. Fungal hyphae infect plants through stomata

101. Hyphal branches penetrate plant cells

102. Obtain nourishment from cytoplasm

103. Symbiotic relationships

104. Economic Impacts of Fungi:

105. mushrooms, morels, truffles

106. beer, bread, wine (yeasts)

107. soy sauce and cheeses

108. citric acid and other industrial chemicals

109. research

110. medications – penicillin, antibiotics

111. Bryophytes:

112. Nonvascular – lacking xylem and phloem (unlike other land plants)

113. No true roots, stems, or leaves

114. Gametophyte is dominant generation (unlike other plants)

115. Sporophytes remain permanently attached

116. Nutritionally dependent on gametophytes

117. Sporophyte produces windblown spores

118. Ferns:

119. Largest and most diverse group of seedless vascular plants

120. Dominant sporophytes produces windblown spores

121. Fern sporophyte consists of a rhizome that bears fronds (leaves) and true roots

122. Only group with well-developed megaphylls

123. Pines and other Conifers:

124. Gymnosperms – seeds are totally exposed or borne on the scales of a cone

125. Pine tree = mature sporophyte

126. Heterosporous – produces microspores(male) and megaspores(female) in separate cones

127. Male cones develop into pollen grains – carried by the air to female cones

128. Pollen tube grows through megasporangium to egg within archegonium

129. After fertilization, zygote develops into embryo encased inside seed adapted for wind dispersal

130. Angiosperms vs. Gymnosperms

131. Angiosperms:

132. have ovary surrounding ovule

133. most numerous plant types; live in all habitats

134. Monocots (3 petals) and Eudicots (4 or 5 petals)

135. Contains flower parts

136. Gymnosperms:

137. do not have ovary surrounding ovule

138. Conifers – sporophyte is dominant

139. Cycads – finely divided leaves, unbranched trunk, pollen and seed cones on separate plants

140. Ginkgoes – Ginkgo biloba is only surviving species

141. Gnetophytes – most closely related to angiosperm

142. Seed Bearing Plants (see above)

143. Conifers

144. Cycads

145. Gingkoes

146. Gnetophytes

147. Flowering Plants

148. Seedless Plants

149. Charophytes – a group of green algae

150. Bryophytes – nonvascular plants

151. Mosses – green plants that grow from a filamentous protonema

152. Liverworts – flattened, lobe-like thalli

153. Hornworts – have thalloid gametophytes

154. Ferns – seedless vascular plants

155. Whisk Ferns – phorophytes have dichotomously branching rhisomes and erect stems (lack true roots and leaves)

156. Horsetails – sporophytes have hollow, jointed roots, rhizomes, aerial stems

157. Plants Adaptations to land existence :

158. Nonvascular plants nourish multicellular embryo of female plant – distinguishes plants from green algae

159. Seedless vascular plants have vascular tissues – evolved about 430 millions years ago

160. Gymnosperms and angiosperms produce seeds – 400 million years ago

161. Plants evolve flowers – 200 million years ago

162. Waxy cuticle covering over leaves and other exposed plant parts

163. Stomata regulates gas and water exchange in leaf

164. Sporophyte is protected against dehydration

165. Vascular vs. Nonvascular

166. Vascular – sporophyte generation is dominant; contains xylem and phloem; cuticle and stomata present

167. Angiosperms, gymnosperms, ferns

168. Nonvascular – lack true roots, stems, and leaves; lack xylem and phloem

169. Hornworts, liverworts, mosses

170. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria and Nodules

171. Called rhizobia

172. Form associations with the roots of leguminous plants – clover, peas, soybeans, etc.

173. Nodules (swellings) that house millions of rhizobia develop on roots

174. Mutually benefitted

175. Bacteria receive the photosynthetic products from plants

176. Bacteria produce excess ammonia to help plant fulfill nitrogen requirement

177. Lichens:

178. Association between fungus and a cyanobacteria or a green alga

179. Photoautotroph provides fungus with organic compounds, shelter, water, and minerals

180. Appears to be controlled form or parasitism

181. Plant Life Cycle:

182. Sporophyte (2n)

183. This generation is dominant in plants with vascular tissue

184. Produces spores(n) by meiosis

185. Gametophyte (n)

186. Formed when spore undergoes mitosis

187. Produces gametes(eggs and sperm) by mitosis

188. This generation is dominant in nonvascular plants

189. Fertilization

190. Gametes (n) (eggs and sperm) fuse to form zygote

191. Zygote (2n) undergoes mitosis to form sporophyte (2n)

192. 57150-444500

193. Seeds and Fruits:

194. Ovules have the potential to develop into seeds

195. Ovaries have the potential to develop into fruits

196. Xylem:

197. Transports water from roots to leaves

198. Strong walled, nonliving cells give support

199. Conducts water and dissolved minerals using 2 types of cells

200. Tracheids – hollow and nonliving; pits for water transport across end/side walls

201. Vessel Elements – larger, hollow and nonliving; continuous hollow pipeline from roots to leaves

202. Phloem:

203. Transports sucrose and other compounds (ex: hormones) to al l plant parts

204. Contains conduction cells,

205. Sieve tube members – contain cytoplasm and no nucleus

206. Companion cells – contain nucleus

208. Primary growth: increases stem or root length that occurs at the tip of the shoots and roots due to the activity of the apical meristems; occurs in all plants

209. Primary Xylem – conducts water and dissolved materials

210. Primary Phloem – vascular tissue that conducts dissolved sugar and organic materials

211. Cortex (ground tissue) – tissue between epidermis and vascular tissue

212. Pith (ground tissue) – innermost tissue in stems and roots; used for storage

213. Epidermis – outer layer of cells that covers the body of plants for protection

214. Woody Eudicot Lateral Growth:

215. Secondary tissue forms from lateral meristem

216. Forms vascular tissue and cork cambrium

217. Growth increases girth of conifers and woody eudicots

218. Vascular cambium produces new xylem and phloem each year

219. Leaves:

220. Epidermis – covers upper, lower surfaces of leave blade; waxy cuticle coat helps plants survive dry terrestrial conditions

221. Stomata – small pores in epidermis that permit gas exchange for photosynthesis

222. Subsidiary cells – provide reservoir of water and ions

223. Mesophyll – photosynthetic parenchyma cells

224. Palisade mesophyll – photosynthesis

225. Spongy mesophyll – gas exchange

226. Leaf veins

227. Xylem

228. Phloem

229. Monocot (parallel venation) or eudicot (netted venation)

230. Guard cells – regulate stomata

231. Water Transport in Plants

232. Water and dissolved minerals move from soil into root tissues (epidermis, cortex)

233. Water and minerals move upward from root xylem to stem xylem to leaf xylrm

234. Water entering the leaf exits leaf veins and passes into the atmosphere

235. Water is cohesive and adhesive; therefore can move UP a plant

236. Water moves from high to low potential (less negative to more negative)

237. Sugar Translocation:

238. Dissolved sugar is translocated upward or downward in phloem from an area of excess sugar to a sink (storage)

239. Sucrose is the predominant sugar

240. Pressure-Flow Hypothesis explains movement of materials in phloem

241. Companion cells actively load sugar into sieve tubes using ATP

242. Proton gradient drives sugar uptake

243. Sugar accumulates in sieve tube elements causing movement of water

244. 350456511747500Flower Parts:

245. Pistil – female reproductive organ

246. Stigma – sticky knob where pollen germinates

247. Style- area through which pollen tube forms

248. Ovary – encloses one or more ovules

249. Stamen – male reproductive organ

250. Anther – pollen grains develop from microspores

251. Filament – supports anther

252. Double Fertilization in Flowers:

253. One sperm nucleus fuses with egg nucleus

254. 2n zygote forms and divides mitotically to form embryo seed

255. One sperm nucleus unites with two polar nuclei

256. Forms triploid nutritive tissue

257. Results in a plant embryo (seed) and an endosperm (nutritive tissue)

258. Ovaries develop into fruits; ovules develop into seeds

259. Seed and Fruit Dispersal:

260. Animals eat fruit, digest, and excrete seeds in a new environment where the seed can grow into a new plant

261. Fruit acts as protection until seed is mature

262. Transpiration:

263. Loss of water vapor

264. Occurs primarily through stomata

265. Both beneficial and harmful to the plant

266. CO₂ requirement for photosynthesis

267. Water needed for conservation

268. Factors affecting the rate of transpiration:

269. Temperature

270. Wind

271. Relative humidity