This document provides information about pharmaceutical tablets, including their manufacturing process, types, components, quality standards, and testing methods. Tablets are solid oral dosage forms made using compression. The manufacturing process involves mixing and granulating powders, then compressing them into tablets using punches and dies. Tablets can have various coatings, release mechanisms, and purposes. Quality is ensured through testing weight variation, disintegration, dissolution, and other physical properties. Proper manufacturing and testing helps ensure tablets safely and effectively deliver medication.
Tablets are solid dosage forms usually obtained by single or multiple compression of powders or granules. In certain cases tablets may be obtained by molding or extrusion techniques. They are uncoated or coated. Tablets are normally right circular solid cylinders, the end surfaces of which are flat or convex and the edges of which may be bevelled. They may have lines or break-marks (scoring), symbols or other markings.Tablets contain one or more active ingredients. They may contain excipients such as diluents, binders, disintegrating agents, glidants, lubricants, substances capable of modifying the behaviour of the dosage forms and the active ingredient(s) in the gastrointestinal tract, colouring matter authorized by the appropriate national or regional authority and flavouring substances. When such excipients are used it is necessary to ensure that they do not adversely affect the stability, dissolution rate, bioavailability, safety or efficacy of the active ingredient(s); there must be no incompatibility between any of the components of the dosage form.
Tablets are single-dose preparations intended for oral administration. Some are intended to be swallowed whole, some after being chewed and some after being crushed, some are intended to be dissolved or dispersed in water before being taken and some are intended to be retained in the mouth where the active ingredient(s) is/are liberated.
Tablets are solid dosage forms usually obtained by single or multiple compression of powders or granules. In certain cases tablets may be obtained by molding or extrusion techniques. They are uncoated or coated. Tablets are normally right circular solid cylinders, the end surfaces of which are flat or convex and the edges of which may be bevelled. They may have lines or break-marks (scoring), symbols or other markings.Tablets contain one or more active ingredients. They may contain excipients such as diluents, binders, disintegrating agents, glidants, lubricants, substances capable of modifying the behaviour of the dosage forms and the active ingredient(s) in the gastrointestinal tract, colouring matter authorized by the appropriate national or regional authority and flavouring substances. When such excipients are used it is necessary to ensure that they do not adversely affect the stability, dissolution rate, bioavailability, safety or efficacy of the active ingredient(s); there must be no incompatibility between any of the components of the dosage form.
Tablets are single-dose preparations intended for oral administration. Some are intended to be swallowed whole, some after being chewed and some after being crushed, some are intended to be dissolved or dispersed in water before being taken and some are intended to be retained in the mouth where the active ingredient(s) is/are liberated.
#tablets #information #pharmacy
Want to Know more about tablets..
Here you can get all the information related to tablets...
Tablet (pharmacy)
Types of Tablets
Tablet properties
Manufacturing of Tablets
Advantages and disadvantages
Here you can get video version of this topic in our YouTube channel
https://youtu.be/acOyc3jbEXk
A detailed study on tablets, its classification, excipients, tablet granulation, methods of granulation, compression machines, equipment tooling and the problems that occur during the tablet manufacturing process. This presentation is based on the PCI syllabus for bpharm students of fifth semester.
#tablets #information #pharmacy
Want to Know more about tablets..
Here you can get all the information related to tablets...
Tablet (pharmacy)
Types of Tablets
Tablet properties
Manufacturing of Tablets
Advantages and disadvantages
Here you can get video version of this topic in our YouTube channel
https://youtu.be/acOyc3jbEXk
A detailed study on tablets, its classification, excipients, tablet granulation, methods of granulation, compression machines, equipment tooling and the problems that occur during the tablet manufacturing process. This presentation is based on the PCI syllabus for bpharm students of fifth semester.
A detailed study on Tablets which describes about tablets, coating of tablets and then a study on the quality control of tablets. The chapter deals with the minute aspects of tablets and gives us an enlightenment of the solid dosage form which is commonly used all around the world
this presentation discusses about; Dosage forms
Tablet dosage forms
Desirable properties of tablets
Classification of tablets
Types of tablets
Tablet ingredients
Tablet manufacturing methods
Major equipments used for wet granulation
Evaluation of tablets
Tableting problems and their remedies
Scope of Pharmacy 1 Prof morning Batch 2021Tehmina Adnan
Introduction and orientation to the Profession of Pharmacy concerning Hospital Pharmacy, Retail Pharmacy, Industrial Pharmacy, Forensic Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical education and research etc
Pharmacy Orientation Gp B Evening Batch 2021Tehmina Adnan
a. Introduction and orientation to the Profession of Pharmacy in relation to Hospital Pharmacy, Retail Pharmacy, Industrial Pharmacy, Forensic Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical education and research etc
Pharmacy orientation Gp A Evening Batch 2021Tehmina Adnan
a. Introduction and orientation to the Profession of Pharmacy in relation to Hospital Pharmacy, Retail Pharmacy, Industrial Pharmacy, Forensic Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical education and research etc
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,ABORTION WOMEN’S CLINIC +27730423979 IN women clinic we believe that every woman should be able to make choices in her pregnancy. Our job is to provide compassionate care, safety,affordable and confidential services. That’s why we have won the trust from all generations of women all over the world. we use non surgical method(Abortion pills) to terminate…Dr.LISA +27730423979women Clinic is committed to providing the highest quality of obstetrical and gynecological care to women of all ages. Our dedicated staff aim to treat each patient and her health concerns with compassion and respect.Our dedicated group ABORTION WOMEN’S CLINIC +27730423979 IN women clinic we believe that every woman should be able to make choices in her pregnancy. Our job is to provide compassionate care, safety,affordable and confidential services. That’s why we have won the trust from all generations of women all over the world. we use non surgical method(Abortion pills) to terminate…Dr.LISA +27730423979women Clinic is committed to providing the highest quality of obstetrical and gynecological care to women of all ages. Our dedicated staff aim to treat each patient and her health concerns with compassion and respect.Our dedicated group of receptionists, nurses, and physicians have worked together as a teamof receptionists, nurses, and physicians have worked together as a team wwww.lisywomensclinic.co.za/
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}NEHA GUPTA
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) is India's national regulatory body for pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Operating under the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, the CDSCO is responsible for approving new drugs, conducting clinical trials, setting standards for drugs, controlling the quality of imported drugs, and coordinating the activities of State Drug Control Organizations by providing expert advice.
Pharmacovigilance, on the other hand, is the science and activities related to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. The primary aim of pharmacovigilance is to ensure the safety and efficacy of medicines, thereby protecting public health.
In India, pharmacovigilance activities are monitored by the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI), which works closely with CDSCO to collect, analyze, and act upon data regarding adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Together, they play a critical role in ensuring that the benefits of drugs outweigh their risks, maintaining high standards of patient safety, and promoting the rational use of medicines.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and IndigestionSwastikAyurveda
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Adv. biopharm. APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMSAkankshaAshtankar
MIP 201T & MPH 202T
ADVANCED BIOPHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACOKINETICS : UNIT 5
APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS By - AKANKSHA ASHTANKAR
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
2. WHAT ARE TABLETS?
Tablets are solid dosage form usually
prepared with the aid of suitable
pharmaceutical excipient. They may
vary in size, shape, weight ,hardness,
thickness, disintegration, and
dissolution characteristics and in
other aspects, depending on their
intended use and method of
manufacture.
3. MANUFACTURING METHOD OF TABLETS:
Tablets are typically manufactured by a compression process. Tablet compression
consists generally of three phases:
1. FILLING:
The powder formulation (e.g., drug + excipients blended together to
form a homogeneous mixture) is stored in a hopper, a container that holds the
powder and dispenses it through the force of gravity. In the filling stage, the tablet
powder is volumetrically filled from the hopper into a die, which helps form the
size and shape of the tablet.
FILLING
COMPRESSION
EJECTION
4. 2. COMPRESSION:
The die contains a lower punch, which compresses the powder held within the die when an upper punch
descends into the die.
3. EJECTION:
The upper punch is then removed, allowing the compressed tablet to
fall out of the die.
Suitable powder flow is needed from the hopper to the die to ensure reproducible dosing. To improve flow
properties, the powder is often granulated prior to compression.
GRANULES:
A granule is defined as an agglomerate of powder particles that are bound together through compression or by the use
of a binder (i.e., an excipient that promotes powder cohesiveness and facilitates formation of granules) such that the
original particles can still be identified. Granulation can increase the homogeneity and bulk density of the mixture to
allow for easier filling into the tablet dies. This is similar to the improved flow properties observed with granulated
sugar, compared to a fine powder (i.e., a powder having a small particle size distribution) like confectioners’ sugar.
5. PROCESS OF GRANULATION:
Granules are created through a process of wet or dry granulation. Rapid disintegration of
granules in water or aqueous-based liquid increases the available surface area of the
particles and facilitates dissolution of drug.
1. WET GRANULATION:
In wet granulation, the drug powder is first mixed with a diluent. The powder blend is wetted with a binder and
water or non-aqueous solvent and thoroughly mixed, resulting in the formation of a wet mass. The solvent is
removed by a drying process to form a dried solid mixture, which is then sieved to create uniformly sized granules.
Additional excipients are then added to the mixture to facilitate the function of the tablet and/or manufacturing.
2. DRY GRANULATION:
Dry granulation involves the application of a dry binder to the powder formulation without the use of a liquid. The
blend is then compressed together in a tablet press to form a large tablet called a slug. A sieve, a mesh screen with
small, uniform openings, is used to separate the slug into uniformly sized granules that are compressed again to form
the final tablet. Alternatively, roller compaction may be used, in which the powder mixture is passed between two
contra-rotating cylindrical rollers to form a compacted powder ribbon. This ribbon is sieved, mixed with additional
excipients and then compressed into tablets.
6. TABLET COATING:
After compression, tablets may be coated. Tablet coatings serve a variety of
functions, such as:
(a) Enhancing aesthetic appearance
(b) Providing product identification
(c) Acting as a physical barrier between the drug and the environment
(d) Increasing strength
(e) Facilitating swallowing
(f) Taste-masking
(g) Modifying the release characteristics of the drug from the dosage form
The typical method of coating tablets is film coating in which a liquid
composition containing polymer(s), plasticizer, pigment, and solvent is sprayed
onto the tablet core while the solvent is concurrently dried during the application of
the liquid to the tablet surface. Aqueous film coatings are often used instead of non aqueous
film coatings that employ organic solvents, due to environmental, toxicity,
and cost concerns.
7. The choice of excipients for the film-coating process is dependent upon the intended purpose of coating and the
desired release profile of the drug. Manufacturing concerns related to the viscosity of the coating formulation, and
the mechanical strength, flexibility, and adhesion properties of the coating onto the tablet surface will also influence
the selection of coating excipients.
Defects in the tablet coating may occur, including picking, mottling, orange peel effect, cracking, and peeling of the
coating, and resolution of these issues requires alterations in the film-coating process or choice of excipients. The
pharmacist must watch for any of these defects when dispensing film-coated tablets because these defects may
affect the performance of the tablet.
COMPONENTS OF TABLETS:
In addition to the medicinal agents, compressed tablets usually contain a
number of pharmaceutical excipient, including
1. DILUENT:
Which add the necessary bulk to a formulation to prepare tablet of
desired size.
8. 2. BINDERS:
It promotes adhesion of the particles of the formulation, allowing a granulation to be prepared and
maintaining the integrity of the final tablet.
3. DISINTEGRANTS OR DISINTEGRATING AGENTS:
It promotes breakup of tablets after administration into smaller particles.
4. ANTI - ADHERANTS, GLIDANTS, LUBRICANTS:
It enhance the flow of material into the tablet dies, minimize wear of the punches and dies, prevents fill
material from sticking to the punches and dies and produce tablets with a sheen miscellaneous adjuncts such
as colorants and flavorants.
9. TYPES OF TABLETS:
1. MULTIPLE COMPRESSED TABLETS:
Multiple compressed tablets are prepared by subjecting the fill material to more than a single compression The
result may be a multiple-layer tablet or a tablet within a tablet, the inner tablet being the core and the outer
portion being the shell. Each layer may contain a different medicinal agent, separated for reasons of chemical or
physical incompatibility, staged drug release, or simply the unique appearance of the layered tablet.
2. SUGAR-COATED TABLETS:
Compressed tablets may be coated with a coloured or an uncoloured sugar layer.
The coating is water soluble and quickly dissolves after swallowing. The sugar-
coat protects the enclosed drug from the environment and provides a barrier to
objectionable taste or odour. disadvantages to sugar-coating tablets are the time
and expertise required in the coating process and the increase in size, weight,
and shipping costs. Sugar-coating may add 50% to the weight and bulk of the
uncoated tablet.
10. 3. FILM COATED TABLETS:
Film-coated tablets are compressed tablets coated with a thin layer of a
polymer capable of forming a skin-like film. The film is usually coloured and
has the advantage over sugar coatings in that it is more durable, less bulky,
and less time-consuming to apply. By its composition, the coating is designed
to rupture and expose the core tablet at the desired location in the
gastrointestinal tract.
4. ENTERIC-COATED TABLETS:
Enteric-coated tablets have delayed-release features. They are designed to
pass unchanged through the stomach to the intestines, where the tablets
disintegrate and allow drug dissolution and absorption and/or effect. Enteric
coatings are employed when the drug substance is destroyed by gastric acid
or is particularly irritating to the gastric mucosa or when bypass of the
stomach substantially
enhances drug absorption.
11. 5. BUCCAL AND SUBLINGUAL TABLETS:
Buccal and sublingual tablets are flat, oval tablets intended to be dissolved in
the buccal pouch (buccal tablets) or beneath the tongue (sublingual tablets)
for absorption through the oral mucosa. They enable oral absorption of
drugs that are destroyed by the gastric juice and/or are poorly absorbed
from the gastrointestinal tract. Buccal tablets are designed to erode slowly,
whereas those for sublingual use (such as nitro-glycerine [NTG]) dissolve
promptly and provide rapid drug effects.
6. CHEWABLE TABLETS:
Chewable tablets have a smooth, rapid disintegration when chewed or
allowed to dissolve in the mouth, have a creamy base, usually of specially
flavoured and coloured mannitol. Chewable tablets are especially useful for
administration of large tablets to children and adults who have difficulty
swallowing solid dosage forms.
12. 7. EFFERVESCENT TABLETS:
Effervescent tablets are prepared by compressing granular effervescent salts
that release gas when in contact with water. These tablets generally contain
medicinal substances that dissolve rapidly when added to water.
8. MOLDED TABLETS:
Certain tablets, such as tablet triturates, may be prepared by molding rather
than by compression. The resultant tablets are very soft and soluble and are
designed for rapid dissolution.
9. GELATIN-COATED TABLETS:
Compressed tablet with a layer of gelatin-based coating. An example is a gel cap Facilitates swallowing and
provides tamper evident technology.
13. 10. EXTENDED RELEASE TABLETS:
Tablets formulated to release drug over an extended period of time following ingestion. Synonyms include
controlled release and sustained release
11. VAGINAL TABLETS:
Uncoated tablet intended for insertion into the vagina, typically for local therapeutic effect.
12. MODIFIED-RELEASE TABLETS:
Tablets designed in such a way as to alter the release of drug from the tablet, such as by delaying drug release
or extending drug release. The term modified release is used to describe both delayed release and extended
release dosage forms, including tablets
14. REASONS FOR COATING TABLETS:
The reasons for coating pharmaceutical oral solid dosage forms are quite varied. The more common reasons
include (no order of importance implied):
1. Providing a means of protecting the drug substance (active pharmaceutical ingredient)from the
environment, particularly light and moisture, and thus potentially improving product stability.
2. Masking the taste of drug substances that maybe bitter or otherwise unpleasant.
3. Improving the ease of swallowing large dosage forms, especially tablets. Tablets that are coated are
considered by patients to be somewhat easier to swallow than uncoated tablets.
4. Masking any batch differences in the appearance of raw materials and hence allaying patient concern
over products that would otherwise appear different each time prescription is dispensed or product
purchased(in the case of over-the-counter products).
5. Providing a means of improving product appearance and aiding in brand identification.
15. 6. Facilitating the rapid identification of a product by the manufacturer, the dispensing pharmacist and the
patient. In this case the coatings would almost certainly be coloured. It is important here to emphasize that
efficient labelling and the associated procedures are the only sure way of identifying a product. However,
product colour is a useful secondary check.
7. Enabling the coated product (especially tablets)to be more easily handled on high-speed automatic filling
and packaging equipment. In this respect the coating often improves product flow, increases the
mechanical strength of the product and reduces the risk of cross-contamination by minimizing ‘dusting
'problems.
8. Imparting modified-release characteristics that allow the drug to be delivered in a more effective manner.
16. TABLET COATING DEFECTS:
1. PICKING:
Occurs when tablets stick together and separate, resulting in areas of the coating being pulled away from the
tablet core.
2. MOTTLING:
Uneven distribution of color within the tablet coating. May result from poor colorant dispersion or migration of
filming coating components in which the colorant is soluble.
3. ORANGE PEEL:
Surface roughness on tablet resulting from poor spreading of film coating.
17. 4. CRACKING:
Splitting of the tablet coating that may occur as a result of tablet core expansion, poor flexibility of the
coating, or mechanical stress upon the coating.
5. PEELING:
Separation of film coating from tablet core due to poor adhesion between coating and core, stresses on film
coating, or poor flexibility of film coating.
QUALITY STANDARD AND COMPENDIAL REQUIREMENTS OF TABLETS:
In addition to the apparent features of tablets, tablets must meet other physical specifications and quality standards.
These include criteria for weight, weight variation, content uniformity, thickness, hardness, disintegration, and
dissolution. These factors must be controlled during production (in-process controls) and verified after the
production of each batch to ensure that established product quality standards are met
18. TABLET WEIGHT AND USP WEIGHT VARIATION TEST:
The quantity of fill in the die of a tablet press determines the weight of the tablet. The volume of fill is adjusted
with the first few tablets to yield the desired weight and content.
CONTENT UNIFORMITY:
By the USP method, 10 dosage units are individually assayed for their content according to the method described in
the individual monograph. Unless otherwise stated in the monograph, the requirements for content uniformity are
met if the amount of active ingredient in each dosage unit lies within the range of 85% to 115% of the label claim
and the standard deviation is less than 6%. If one or more dosage units do not meet these criteria, additional tests
as prescribed in the USP are required
19. TABLET THICKNESS:
The thickness of a tablet is determined by the diameter of the die, the amount of fill permitted to enter the die,
the compaction characteristics of the fill material, and the force or pressure applied during compression.
PACKAGING OF TABLETS:
Glass bottles with screw or snap-on caps; glass or plastic tube with polyethylene closure, possibly with prongs or
plastic coil to prevent rattling; extruded aluminium container with screw cap; unit packs in foil and film.
20. TABLET TESTING:
After preparation of tablet, testing is done to ensure the efficient production of tablet.
Some test methods are described in pharmacopoeias, and these tests are traditionally concerned with the
content and the in vitro release of the active ingredient. While, the tests which are not described in
pharmacopoeias are sometimes referred to as no compendia and concern a variety of quality attributes that need
to be evaluated, such as the porosity of tablets.
METHODS OF TABLET TESTING:
1. UNIFORMITY OF CONTENT OF ACTIVE INGREDIENTS:
The test for uniformity of drug content is performed by collecting a sample of tablets followed by
determination of the amount of drug in each tablet. The average drug content is calculated, and the content
of the individual tablets should fall within specified limits.
21. 2. DISINTEGRATION:
The process of drug release from tablets often includes a step in which the tablet disintegrates into smaller
fragments. To assess this, disintegration test methods have been developed, and examples of these can be
found in pharmacopoeias. The test is performed by agitation of a given number of tablets in an aqueous
medium at a defined temperature, and the time to reach the end point of the test is recorded. The end point
of the test is the point at which all visible parts of the tablets have been eliminated from a set of tubes in
which the tablets have been held during agitation. The tubes are closed at the lower end by a screen, and the
tablet fragments formed during the disintegration are eliminated from the tubes by passing the screen
openings, i.e. disintegration is considered to be achieved when no tablet fragments remain on the screen
(fragments of coating may, however, remain).
22. 3. DISSOLUTION:
Dissolution testing is the most important way to study, under in vitro conditions, the release of a drug from a
solid dosage form. With respect to preparations, the maintest methods can be classified into two groups.
• Stirred-Vessel Methods:
The most important stirred-vessel methods are the rotating-basket method and the paddle
method. Both use the same type of vessel, which is filled with a dissolution medium of controlled
volume and temperature.
• Continuous-Flow Methods:
In the continuous-flow, the preparation is held within a flow cell, through which the dissolution
medium is pumped at a controlled rate from a large reservoir. The liquid which has passed the flow
cell is collected for analysis of drug content. The continuous-flow cell method may have advantages
over stirred-vessel methods, e.g. it maintains sink conditions throughout the experiment and
avoids floating of the preparation.
23. 4. MECHANICAL STRENGTH:
The mechanical strength of a tablet is associated with the resistance of the solid specimen to fracturing
and attrition. An acceptable tablet must remain intact during handling at all stages, i.e. during
production, packaging, warehousing, distribution, dispensing and administration by the patient. Thus,
an integral part of the formulation and production of tablets is the determination of their mechanical
strength.
A number of methods are available for measuring mechanical strength, and they give different results.
In addition, the hardness of a tablet is sometimes measured by indentation testing. The most commonly
used methods for strength testing can be subcategorized into two main groups:
• Attrition Resistance Methods (Friability tests)
The idea behind attrition resistance methods is to mimic the kind of forces to which a tablet is
subjected during handling between its production and its administration. These are also
referred to as friability tests; a friable tablet is one that is liable to erode mechanically during
handling.
24. During handling, tablets are subjected to stresses from collisions and tablets sliding towards one
another and other solid surfaces, which can result in the removal of particles or particle clusters
from the tablet surface. The result will be a progressive reduction in tablet weight and a change in
its appearance. Thus, an important property of a tablet is its ability to resist attrition so as to
ensure that the correct amount of drug is administered and that the appearance of the tablet does
not change during handling.
The most common experimental procedure for determining attrition resistance involves the
rotation of tablets in a cylinder, followed by the determination of weight loss after a given number
of rotations. Another approach is to shake tablets intensively in a jar of dimensions similar to those
of a pack-jar. Normally, weight loss of less than 1% during a friability test is required. In addition,
the tablets should not show capping or cracking during such testing.
• Fracture Resistance Methods:
Analysis of fracture resistance of tablets involves the application of a load on the tablet and the
determination of the force needed to fracture or break the specimen along its diameter. In such
compression testing the tablet is placed against a platen (a flat metal plate) and the load is applied
along its diameter by a movable platen.
25. The tablet fails ideally along its diameter, i.e. parallel to the compression load, in a single fracture
into two pieces of similar size and the fracture force is recorded. The force needed to fracture the
tablet by diametral compression is often somewhat unfortunately referred to as the crushing
strength of the tablet. The fracture of tablet depends upon the dimensions of the tablet. An ideal
test, however, should allow comparison between tablets of different sizes or even shapes.
This can be accomplished by assessing the strength of the tablet, i.e. the force needed to fracture
the tablet per unit fracture area. A strength test requires that the fracture mode (i.e. the method
by which the crack is formed) can be controlled and that the stress state along the fracture plane
can be estimated.
Alternative procedures to measure the tensile strength of a tablet include breaking the tablet in a
bending test or directly pulling the tablet apart until it fractures.