This document summarizes various pathological forms seen in red blood cells (RBCs) and white blood cells (WBCs). It describes variations in size, shape, and inclusions seen in RBCs in various anemias and diseases. It also describes abnormal WBCs seen in infections, cancers, and other conditions. Key terminology related to anemias, polycythemias, and WBC differentials are defined. Causes and characteristics of different types of anemias, polycythemias, and leukogram patterns are summarized.
Hemolytic disorders due to inherited abnormalities in red cell cytoskeletonGuvera Vasireddy
Hereditary spherocytosis is caused by inherited defects in the red blood cell cytoskeleton that weaken its interaction with the cell membrane. This leads to a spherical shape as the cell loses membrane area to maintain its volume. The most common defects involve ankyrin, band 3, and spectrin proteins. Patients present with signs of hemolytic anemia ranging from mild to severe. Diagnosis is based on spherocytes seen on blood smear, elevated osmotic fragility, and defects found in membrane skeletal proteins. Splenectomy improves anemia but does not cure the underlying defect.
This document describes the procedure for determining red blood cell (RBC) count using the Unopette system. Whole blood is added to an isotonic saline solution in a Unopette reservoir to preserve RBCs without lysis. This provides a 1:200 dilution ratio of sample to total volume. The diluted blood is then charged to a hematocytometer and counted under a microscope. The total RBC count per cubic millimeter is calculated based on the cell counts. Normal RBC counts in adults range from 4.2-6.1 million per cubic millimeter. Potential sources of error include issues with the apparatus or technique.
Platelet count and hematocrit determination methodsNegash Alamin
1. The document describes the principles, procedures, and clinical significance of platelet count and hematocrit determination methods. Platelet count involves diluting blood with ammonium oxalate and counting platelets under a microscope, while hematocrit involves filling a capillary tube with blood and centrifuging it to measure the ratio of red blood cells to plasma.
2. Both tests help diagnose bleeding, clotting, and anemia issues by checking platelet and red blood cell levels. Abnormally high or low counts can indicate conditions like blood cancers, blood loss, kidney disease, or dehydration. Precise methods and calculations are required to obtain accurate results.
Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells that contain RNA and cytoplasmic remnants from earlier stages of development. A reticulocyte count provides information about bone marrow response and red blood cell production. There are four stages of reticulocyte maturation defined by their morphological appearance after staining. A reticulocyte count can be performed manually using supravital staining or automatically using flow cytometry to measure RNA levels. An increased reticulocyte count indicates bone marrow response to anemia while a decreased count suggests impaired red blood cell production.
The document discusses various hematological investigations and artifacts. It describes the process of a differential count, which involves examining a peripheral blood smear under a microscope to determine percentages of different white blood cells. The blood smear can also reveal abnormal red blood cell and white blood cell morphologies. The document then discusses the steps to make a good blood smear, including using a clean slide and proper angulation and force when spreading the blood. Potential artifacts from improper smear preparation or staining are also described. The document concludes with discussing various hematological tests including complete blood count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, coagulation tests, and factors that could affect the results.
This document discusses hematology basics and differentials for blood smears in cats and dogs. It provides information on proper blood collection and smear preparation to avoid artifacts. Common red blood cell abnormalities seen in animals are described, including poikilocytes, inclusions, and parasites. Performing differentials on blood smears can provide important information about morphological changes and specific cell types that is not detected on automated analyzers. Proper staining and examining blood smears is essential for accurate results.
This document discusses the peripheral blood smear examination. It begins by outlining the role of peripheral blood examination, which includes evaluating anemia, thrombocytopenia/thrombocytosis, identifying abnormal cells, and detecting infections. It then describes the proper collection of blood in EDTA tubes and various color-coded tubes. The document proceeds to explain the different techniques for preparing blood smears, including the wedge, cover slip, and spun smear methods. Finally, it outlines the staining, microscopic examination, identification of white blood cells, red blood cell abnormalities, and other findings commonly seen on peripheral blood smears.
Embedding is the process of enclosing tissue specimens in an embedding medium such as paraffin wax to support the specimen for sectioning. The choice of embedding medium depends on the type of tissue, microscope, and microtome being used. Common embedding mediums include paraffin wax, celloidin, resin, and gelatin. Paraffin wax is most widely used due to its hardness and ability to produce high quality sections. Proper orientation of the specimen in the embedding block is important for pathological examination and diagnosis.
Hemolytic disorders due to inherited abnormalities in red cell cytoskeletonGuvera Vasireddy
Hereditary spherocytosis is caused by inherited defects in the red blood cell cytoskeleton that weaken its interaction with the cell membrane. This leads to a spherical shape as the cell loses membrane area to maintain its volume. The most common defects involve ankyrin, band 3, and spectrin proteins. Patients present with signs of hemolytic anemia ranging from mild to severe. Diagnosis is based on spherocytes seen on blood smear, elevated osmotic fragility, and defects found in membrane skeletal proteins. Splenectomy improves anemia but does not cure the underlying defect.
This document describes the procedure for determining red blood cell (RBC) count using the Unopette system. Whole blood is added to an isotonic saline solution in a Unopette reservoir to preserve RBCs without lysis. This provides a 1:200 dilution ratio of sample to total volume. The diluted blood is then charged to a hematocytometer and counted under a microscope. The total RBC count per cubic millimeter is calculated based on the cell counts. Normal RBC counts in adults range from 4.2-6.1 million per cubic millimeter. Potential sources of error include issues with the apparatus or technique.
Platelet count and hematocrit determination methodsNegash Alamin
1. The document describes the principles, procedures, and clinical significance of platelet count and hematocrit determination methods. Platelet count involves diluting blood with ammonium oxalate and counting platelets under a microscope, while hematocrit involves filling a capillary tube with blood and centrifuging it to measure the ratio of red blood cells to plasma.
2. Both tests help diagnose bleeding, clotting, and anemia issues by checking platelet and red blood cell levels. Abnormally high or low counts can indicate conditions like blood cancers, blood loss, kidney disease, or dehydration. Precise methods and calculations are required to obtain accurate results.
Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells that contain RNA and cytoplasmic remnants from earlier stages of development. A reticulocyte count provides information about bone marrow response and red blood cell production. There are four stages of reticulocyte maturation defined by their morphological appearance after staining. A reticulocyte count can be performed manually using supravital staining or automatically using flow cytometry to measure RNA levels. An increased reticulocyte count indicates bone marrow response to anemia while a decreased count suggests impaired red blood cell production.
The document discusses various hematological investigations and artifacts. It describes the process of a differential count, which involves examining a peripheral blood smear under a microscope to determine percentages of different white blood cells. The blood smear can also reveal abnormal red blood cell and white blood cell morphologies. The document then discusses the steps to make a good blood smear, including using a clean slide and proper angulation and force when spreading the blood. Potential artifacts from improper smear preparation or staining are also described. The document concludes with discussing various hematological tests including complete blood count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, coagulation tests, and factors that could affect the results.
This document discusses hematology basics and differentials for blood smears in cats and dogs. It provides information on proper blood collection and smear preparation to avoid artifacts. Common red blood cell abnormalities seen in animals are described, including poikilocytes, inclusions, and parasites. Performing differentials on blood smears can provide important information about morphological changes and specific cell types that is not detected on automated analyzers. Proper staining and examining blood smears is essential for accurate results.
This document discusses the peripheral blood smear examination. It begins by outlining the role of peripheral blood examination, which includes evaluating anemia, thrombocytopenia/thrombocytosis, identifying abnormal cells, and detecting infections. It then describes the proper collection of blood in EDTA tubes and various color-coded tubes. The document proceeds to explain the different techniques for preparing blood smears, including the wedge, cover slip, and spun smear methods. Finally, it outlines the staining, microscopic examination, identification of white blood cells, red blood cell abnormalities, and other findings commonly seen on peripheral blood smears.
Embedding is the process of enclosing tissue specimens in an embedding medium such as paraffin wax to support the specimen for sectioning. The choice of embedding medium depends on the type of tissue, microscope, and microtome being used. Common embedding mediums include paraffin wax, celloidin, resin, and gelatin. Paraffin wax is most widely used due to its hardness and ability to produce high quality sections. Proper orientation of the specimen in the embedding block is important for pathological examination and diagnosis.
This document describes various abnormal red blood cell morphologies seen in different hematological conditions. It discusses ovalocytes seen in megaloblastic anemia, spherocytes in hereditary spherocytosis and membrane defects, elliptocytes associated with iron deficiency anemia and thalassemia, echinocytes in renal and liver diseases, burr cells and acanthocytes seen in various conditions. It also summarizes target cells, schistocytes, keratocytes, dacrocytes, sickle cells and other abnormal RBC shapes and their clinical associations.
- Red blood cell morphology can provide clues to underlying diseases. Abnormalities include variation in size (anisocytosis), shape (poikilocytosis), color, and presence of inclusion bodies.
- Microcytosis and macrocytosis indicate abnormally small or large red blood cells, seen in iron deficiency, thalassemia, and liver/bone marrow diseases. Hypochromic cells appear pale due to low hemoglobin.
- Poikilocytosis describes variations in shape like elliptical, tear-drop, sickle, and fragmented (schistocyte) cells, associated with hemolytic anemias, thalassemia, and coagulation disorders. Inclusion bodies include Howell-J
Haemocytometry is a technique used to count blood cells and cells in other body fluids. It involves diluting a blood or fluid sample and counting the cells in a special counting chamber under a microscope. The total white blood cell count, platelet count, and absolute eosinophil count can be determined through haemocytometry. Precise dilution and counting technique is required to obtain accurate results, which provide information about a patient's health status and response to treatment.
Staining ( rouine and special in cytology) rajiv kumarrajusehrawat
The document discusses staining techniques used in histology and cytology. It provides details on the preparation, components, and use of common stains including Hematoxylin, Giemsa stain, Papanicolaou stain, and Periodic acid–Schiff stain. The stains are used to differentially color structures like nuclei, cytoplasm, muscles, bones, parasites and glycogen under the microscope to enable examination of tissue samples and identification of cells and microorganisms.
The document provides information about peripheral blood smear morphology and summarizes several case examples. It discusses how a peripheral blood smear can provide useful information by examining the physical properties and staining characteristics of blood cells. The summary then briefly outlines the hematological findings and peripheral blood smear morphology for 3 cases: iron deficiency anemia, thalassemia (HbH), and hereditary spherocytosis.
This document summarizes haematological changes that can occur in systemic diseases. It discusses anaemia of chronic disorders which occurs in patients with inflammatory or malignant conditions. The anaemia is caused by decreased iron availability and erythropoietin response. It also occurs in rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, chronic kidney disease, liver disease, and hypothyroidism due to various contributing factors like blood loss, bone marrow suppression, and cytokine effects. Coagulation abnormalities can also arise in cancers, liver disease, and nephrotic syndrome.
This document discusses fungal infections in histopathology. It provides advantages of histopathology for fungal identification, describes special staining techniques used to identify fungi in different tissues, outlines major fungal forms seen, and lists true and opportunistic fungal pathogens. It also describes 8 cases presenting with fungal infections and provides the diagnoses for each case. The document serves as a reference for histopathologists to identify fungi in tissue samples.
This document discusses various staining techniques used to differentiate tissues and cellular structures under a microscope. It describes the objectives of staining as revealing internal and external structures and producing specific chemical and physical reactions. The 3 major groups of staining are histological, histochemical, and immunohistochemical staining. Histological staining uses dyes to demonstrate tissue and cell relationships. Histochemical staining localizes specific tissue substances through chemical reactions. Immunohistochemical staining uses antibodies to detect phenotypic markers. The document outlines different types of stains, staining methods like direct, indirect and regressive staining, as well as procedures for staining frozen sections, paraffin sections, and broken slides.
This document discusses various dyes and stains used in biological studies. It begins by distinguishing between dyes, which are manufactured substances, and stains, which are dye solutions. Dyes can be natural, extracted from sources like lichens, or synthetic and manufactured. Common stains discussed include Wright's stain, Leishman's stain, Giemsa stain, and Romanowsky stains. The document provides details on the composition and preparation of these stains as well as their staining properties and applications in studying blood smears, bone marrow, and malaria parasites.
This document provides information on interpreting histograms from cell counters. It discusses the principles of electronic impedance and optical light scatter cell counting methods. Histograms graphically represent cell population data based on cell size on the x-axis and cell number on the y-axis. Normal ranges are provided for red blood cell, platelet, and white blood cell histograms. Various flags that could appear are described, including possible causes such as platelet clumping, red blood cell agglutination, or extreme leukocytosis. Parameters for each cell type are also defined.
Cell blocks provide diagnostic information in addition to regular cytology slides. They allow examination of histological structure and use of ancillary tests like special stains and immunohistochemistry. A cell block is prepared by concentrating cells from cytology specimens using various methods like centrifugation or thrombin clotting. This allows cells to be processed and examined like histology samples. Cell blocks improve diagnostic accuracy for body fluids and fineneedle aspiration samples. They are useful for identifying primary tumor sites, distinguishing reactive from malignant cells, and enabling molecular testing.
This document discusses several red blood cell indices used to characterize anemias, including mean cell volume (MCV), mean cell hemoglobin (MCH), mean cell hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), and red cell distribution width (RDW). It provides details on how each index is calculated and interpreted, and examples of abnormal red blood cell morphologies seen in different types of anemias that would affect the index values.
Honing and stropping are processes used to sharpen knives. Honing removes nicks and irregularities from the cutting edge to make it straight and sharp. It is done using a hone, which must be kept clean and lubricated. The process involves pushing and pulling the knife across the hone in strokes until the edge is smooth. Stropping further polishes the edge after honing. It straightens and aligns the microscopic teeth at the edge without removing material, resulting in an even sharper, mirror-like finish.
Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells that are released from the bone marrow into circulation during erythropoiesis. Automated analysis of reticulocytes provides several parameters that can help evaluate bone marrow function and iron status. The immature reticulocyte fraction is useful for monitoring bone marrow recovery after chemotherapy or transplant. Reticulocyte hemoglobin content measures like CHr can detect iron deficiency earlier than other tests. Using multiple reticulocyte parameters in diagnostic algorithms helps classify anemias and guide treatment.
This document provides information about performing and interpreting a peripheral blood smear examination. It discusses preparing the smear, staining it using Romanowsky staining techniques, and systematically examining it under the microscope. The summary includes evaluating red blood cells for abnormalities in size, shape, inclusions and other features. White blood cell differential counts and platelet assessment are also reviewed. The document outlines various morphological abnormalities that may be observed and their potential clinical significance.
This document describes normal red blood cell morphology and various abnormalities that can occur. A normal red blood cell is biconcave and disk-like in shape, containing hemoglobin and lacking a nucleus. Abnormalities include variations in size (anisocytosis), shape (poikilocytosis), and inclusions within red blood cells. Specific abnormal RBC shapes discussed include spherocytes, ovalocytes, burr cells, crenated cells, schistocytes, and sickle cells. Causes of these abnormalities and other findings like basophilic stippling are also summarized.
Microtomy is the process of cutting thin tissue sections for microscopic examination. It involves using a microtome, a mechanical device that cuts very thin and uniform slices. There are various types of microtomes classified based on their cutting mechanism, such as manual microtomes like sliding, rotary, and cryostat microtomes, and automatic microtomes. Microtomes can also be classified based on the material of the knife edge used such as steel, glass, diamond, and sapphire knives. Proper sample preparation and microtome maintenance are important to obtain high quality sections without artifacts.
Fluid cytology in serous cavity effusionstashagarwal
The intrathoracic and intraperitoneal organs are covered by a single layer of mesothelial cells, which is continuous with the lining of the thoracic and peritoneal cavities. The potential space between the two layers of epithelium contains a small amount of lubricating fluid.
Serous fluid lies between the membranes lining the body cavities(parietal) and those covering the organs within the cavities(visceral).
Production and reabsorption are normally at a constant rate. They are influenced by
Changes in osmotic and hydrostatic pressure in the blood.
Concentration of chemical constituents in the plasma
Permeability of blood vessels and membranes.
An accumulation of fluid, called an effusion, results from an imbalance of fluid production and reabsorption. This fluid accumulation in the pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities is known as serous effusion.
This document discusses various types of anemia and polycythemia. It defines anemia as a decrease in red blood cell count or hemoglobin levels leading to decreased oxygen carrying capacity. The main types discussed are iron deficiency anemia, megaloblastic anemia caused by B12 or folate deficiencies, aplastic anemia from decreased bone marrow activity, and anemias caused by increased red blood cell destruction such as sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, and spherocytosis. Polycythemia is defined as an increased red blood cell count and the document discusses primary and secondary causes as well as the effects of increased blood viscosity.
This document provides an overview of hemolytic anemia, including definitions, pathogenesis, classification, clinical features, laboratory findings, and approaches. Hemolytic anemia is characterized by increased red blood cell destruction. It can be hereditary or acquired. Specific hereditary forms discussed include hereditary spherocytosis, elliptocytosis, and pyropoikilocytosis, which are caused by red blood cell membrane defects. Clinical features may include pallor, jaundice, splenomegaly, and gallstones. Laboratory findings aid in diagnosis and include peripheral smear showing abnormal red blood cells, reticulocytosis, and elevated bilirubin. The document also discusses hemolytic anemia evaluation and differential diagnoses.
This document describes various abnormal red blood cell morphologies seen in different hematological conditions. It discusses ovalocytes seen in megaloblastic anemia, spherocytes in hereditary spherocytosis and membrane defects, elliptocytes associated with iron deficiency anemia and thalassemia, echinocytes in renal and liver diseases, burr cells and acanthocytes seen in various conditions. It also summarizes target cells, schistocytes, keratocytes, dacrocytes, sickle cells and other abnormal RBC shapes and their clinical associations.
- Red blood cell morphology can provide clues to underlying diseases. Abnormalities include variation in size (anisocytosis), shape (poikilocytosis), color, and presence of inclusion bodies.
- Microcytosis and macrocytosis indicate abnormally small or large red blood cells, seen in iron deficiency, thalassemia, and liver/bone marrow diseases. Hypochromic cells appear pale due to low hemoglobin.
- Poikilocytosis describes variations in shape like elliptical, tear-drop, sickle, and fragmented (schistocyte) cells, associated with hemolytic anemias, thalassemia, and coagulation disorders. Inclusion bodies include Howell-J
Haemocytometry is a technique used to count blood cells and cells in other body fluids. It involves diluting a blood or fluid sample and counting the cells in a special counting chamber under a microscope. The total white blood cell count, platelet count, and absolute eosinophil count can be determined through haemocytometry. Precise dilution and counting technique is required to obtain accurate results, which provide information about a patient's health status and response to treatment.
Staining ( rouine and special in cytology) rajiv kumarrajusehrawat
The document discusses staining techniques used in histology and cytology. It provides details on the preparation, components, and use of common stains including Hematoxylin, Giemsa stain, Papanicolaou stain, and Periodic acid–Schiff stain. The stains are used to differentially color structures like nuclei, cytoplasm, muscles, bones, parasites and glycogen under the microscope to enable examination of tissue samples and identification of cells and microorganisms.
The document provides information about peripheral blood smear morphology and summarizes several case examples. It discusses how a peripheral blood smear can provide useful information by examining the physical properties and staining characteristics of blood cells. The summary then briefly outlines the hematological findings and peripheral blood smear morphology for 3 cases: iron deficiency anemia, thalassemia (HbH), and hereditary spherocytosis.
This document summarizes haematological changes that can occur in systemic diseases. It discusses anaemia of chronic disorders which occurs in patients with inflammatory or malignant conditions. The anaemia is caused by decreased iron availability and erythropoietin response. It also occurs in rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, chronic kidney disease, liver disease, and hypothyroidism due to various contributing factors like blood loss, bone marrow suppression, and cytokine effects. Coagulation abnormalities can also arise in cancers, liver disease, and nephrotic syndrome.
This document discusses fungal infections in histopathology. It provides advantages of histopathology for fungal identification, describes special staining techniques used to identify fungi in different tissues, outlines major fungal forms seen, and lists true and opportunistic fungal pathogens. It also describes 8 cases presenting with fungal infections and provides the diagnoses for each case. The document serves as a reference for histopathologists to identify fungi in tissue samples.
This document discusses various staining techniques used to differentiate tissues and cellular structures under a microscope. It describes the objectives of staining as revealing internal and external structures and producing specific chemical and physical reactions. The 3 major groups of staining are histological, histochemical, and immunohistochemical staining. Histological staining uses dyes to demonstrate tissue and cell relationships. Histochemical staining localizes specific tissue substances through chemical reactions. Immunohistochemical staining uses antibodies to detect phenotypic markers. The document outlines different types of stains, staining methods like direct, indirect and regressive staining, as well as procedures for staining frozen sections, paraffin sections, and broken slides.
This document discusses various dyes and stains used in biological studies. It begins by distinguishing between dyes, which are manufactured substances, and stains, which are dye solutions. Dyes can be natural, extracted from sources like lichens, or synthetic and manufactured. Common stains discussed include Wright's stain, Leishman's stain, Giemsa stain, and Romanowsky stains. The document provides details on the composition and preparation of these stains as well as their staining properties and applications in studying blood smears, bone marrow, and malaria parasites.
This document provides information on interpreting histograms from cell counters. It discusses the principles of electronic impedance and optical light scatter cell counting methods. Histograms graphically represent cell population data based on cell size on the x-axis and cell number on the y-axis. Normal ranges are provided for red blood cell, platelet, and white blood cell histograms. Various flags that could appear are described, including possible causes such as platelet clumping, red blood cell agglutination, or extreme leukocytosis. Parameters for each cell type are also defined.
Cell blocks provide diagnostic information in addition to regular cytology slides. They allow examination of histological structure and use of ancillary tests like special stains and immunohistochemistry. A cell block is prepared by concentrating cells from cytology specimens using various methods like centrifugation or thrombin clotting. This allows cells to be processed and examined like histology samples. Cell blocks improve diagnostic accuracy for body fluids and fineneedle aspiration samples. They are useful for identifying primary tumor sites, distinguishing reactive from malignant cells, and enabling molecular testing.
This document discusses several red blood cell indices used to characterize anemias, including mean cell volume (MCV), mean cell hemoglobin (MCH), mean cell hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), and red cell distribution width (RDW). It provides details on how each index is calculated and interpreted, and examples of abnormal red blood cell morphologies seen in different types of anemias that would affect the index values.
Honing and stropping are processes used to sharpen knives. Honing removes nicks and irregularities from the cutting edge to make it straight and sharp. It is done using a hone, which must be kept clean and lubricated. The process involves pushing and pulling the knife across the hone in strokes until the edge is smooth. Stropping further polishes the edge after honing. It straightens and aligns the microscopic teeth at the edge without removing material, resulting in an even sharper, mirror-like finish.
Reticulocytes are immature red blood cells that are released from the bone marrow into circulation during erythropoiesis. Automated analysis of reticulocytes provides several parameters that can help evaluate bone marrow function and iron status. The immature reticulocyte fraction is useful for monitoring bone marrow recovery after chemotherapy or transplant. Reticulocyte hemoglobin content measures like CHr can detect iron deficiency earlier than other tests. Using multiple reticulocyte parameters in diagnostic algorithms helps classify anemias and guide treatment.
This document provides information about performing and interpreting a peripheral blood smear examination. It discusses preparing the smear, staining it using Romanowsky staining techniques, and systematically examining it under the microscope. The summary includes evaluating red blood cells for abnormalities in size, shape, inclusions and other features. White blood cell differential counts and platelet assessment are also reviewed. The document outlines various morphological abnormalities that may be observed and their potential clinical significance.
This document describes normal red blood cell morphology and various abnormalities that can occur. A normal red blood cell is biconcave and disk-like in shape, containing hemoglobin and lacking a nucleus. Abnormalities include variations in size (anisocytosis), shape (poikilocytosis), and inclusions within red blood cells. Specific abnormal RBC shapes discussed include spherocytes, ovalocytes, burr cells, crenated cells, schistocytes, and sickle cells. Causes of these abnormalities and other findings like basophilic stippling are also summarized.
Microtomy is the process of cutting thin tissue sections for microscopic examination. It involves using a microtome, a mechanical device that cuts very thin and uniform slices. There are various types of microtomes classified based on their cutting mechanism, such as manual microtomes like sliding, rotary, and cryostat microtomes, and automatic microtomes. Microtomes can also be classified based on the material of the knife edge used such as steel, glass, diamond, and sapphire knives. Proper sample preparation and microtome maintenance are important to obtain high quality sections without artifacts.
Fluid cytology in serous cavity effusionstashagarwal
The intrathoracic and intraperitoneal organs are covered by a single layer of mesothelial cells, which is continuous with the lining of the thoracic and peritoneal cavities. The potential space between the two layers of epithelium contains a small amount of lubricating fluid.
Serous fluid lies between the membranes lining the body cavities(parietal) and those covering the organs within the cavities(visceral).
Production and reabsorption are normally at a constant rate. They are influenced by
Changes in osmotic and hydrostatic pressure in the blood.
Concentration of chemical constituents in the plasma
Permeability of blood vessels and membranes.
An accumulation of fluid, called an effusion, results from an imbalance of fluid production and reabsorption. This fluid accumulation in the pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities is known as serous effusion.
This document discusses various types of anemia and polycythemia. It defines anemia as a decrease in red blood cell count or hemoglobin levels leading to decreased oxygen carrying capacity. The main types discussed are iron deficiency anemia, megaloblastic anemia caused by B12 or folate deficiencies, aplastic anemia from decreased bone marrow activity, and anemias caused by increased red blood cell destruction such as sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, and spherocytosis. Polycythemia is defined as an increased red blood cell count and the document discusses primary and secondary causes as well as the effects of increased blood viscosity.
This document provides an overview of hemolytic anemia, including definitions, pathogenesis, classification, clinical features, laboratory findings, and approaches. Hemolytic anemia is characterized by increased red blood cell destruction. It can be hereditary or acquired. Specific hereditary forms discussed include hereditary spherocytosis, elliptocytosis, and pyropoikilocytosis, which are caused by red blood cell membrane defects. Clinical features may include pallor, jaundice, splenomegaly, and gallstones. Laboratory findings aid in diagnosis and include peripheral smear showing abnormal red blood cells, reticulocytosis, and elevated bilirubin. The document also discusses hemolytic anemia evaluation and differential diagnoses.
This document summarizes the functions of blood cells and common blood disorders. It describes how white blood cells help fight infection through chemotaxis and hemostasis helps stop bleeding. Red blood cell disorders discussed include anemias from reduced production or increased destruction. Sickle cell disease and thalassemia cause hemolysis. Polycythemia and leukopenias are also summarized. Common blood disorders like leukemia, hemophilia and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) are briefly described.
This document discusses spherocytes, which are red blood cells that have lost their biconcavity and appear as densely stained spheres. Spherocytes can be caused by membrane defects or immune-mediated lysis of the membrane. The most common membrane defect is hereditary spherocytosis, which is caused by a genetic defect in membrane proteins. Immune-mediated hemolytic anemias that can cause spherocytosis include warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia and cold agglutinin disease. Laboratory tests shown to identify spherocytes include a peripheral smear, osmotic fragility testing, and Coombs testing to distinguish immune from non-immune causes.
Hereditary spherocytosis is a hereditary hemolytic anemia caused by a red blood cell membrane defect that results in spherocytosis. The misshapen red blood cells, called spherocytes, are destroyed by the spleen, leading to hemolysis and a shortage of red blood cells. Clinical features include jaundice, splenomegaly, and gallstones. Laboratory findings show microspherocytes on peripheral blood film and increased reticulocytes, with normal red blood cell size.
1. A 12-year-old girl presented with fever, lethargy, gum bleeding, and epistaxis. On examination, she had pallor, petechiae, hepatomegaly, and hyperpigmented knuckles.
2. Laboratory findings showed pancytopenia, macroovalocytes on peripheral smear, and low serum B12 and folate levels. Bone marrow aspiration showed megaloblastic erythroid precursors and giant myelocytes/metamyelocytes.
3. Based on the findings, she was diagnosed with megaloblastic anemia secondary to vitamin B12 and folate deficiency. Treatment involves vitamin B12 and folate supplementation.
The document provides an overview of red blood cell morphology, describing normal red blood cell appearance and abnormalities that may be seen related to size, shape, color, distribution, and inclusions. Key points include that normal red blood cells are biconcave discs that appear reddish at the periphery and pale in the center, and abnormalities may indicate diseases related to plasma proteins, erythropoiesis, hemoglobin formation, cell damage, or increased erythropoiesis. Specific abnormalities described include microcytosis, macrocytosis, hypochromia, poikilocytosis, spherocytes, and inclusions like Howell-Jolly bodies.
Cirrhosis is an end-stage liver disease characterized by fibrosis, regenerative nodules, and loss of liver architecture. Common causes include alcohol, hepatitis B/C, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Cirrhosis can lead to portal hypertension, where increased resistance in the liver causes blood to back up in the portal vein. Complications of portal hypertension include variceal bleeding, ascites, and hepatic encephalopathy. Management involves treating the underlying cause, managing complications, and liver transplantation for severe disease.
This document provides information about performing and interpreting a peripheral blood smear. It discusses examining red blood cells for morphology, abnormalities in shape and distribution, and inclusions. White blood cell morphology of neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes is also described. Platelet morphology and abnormalities in platelet count are briefly covered. The preparation, staining, and examination process for a peripheral blood smear is outlined.
A complete blood count (CBC) provides quantitative and qualitative information about components in blood. It includes counts of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, as well as the hemoglobin level, hematocrit, and cell morphology. Abnormal cell counts or cell morphologies can indicate various hematological disorders and diseases. A CBC is an important routine test that provides valuable information about a person's overall health status.
This 20-year old male presented with a history of delayed growth, puberty, fever, severe joint pain and abdominal pain. Examination found pallor, icterus and tenderness. Labs showed anemia, elevated bilirubin and liver enzymes. Peripheral smear showed normocytic normochromic RBCs with some sickle cells. USG found gallstones and spleen not visualized. Hb electrophoresis showed HbS, consistent with sickle cell anemia.
Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH) is a rare, acquired, life-threatening disease of the blood characterized by destruction of red Blood cells by the complement system, a part of the body's innate immune system.
The disease is characterized by destruction of red blood cells (hemolytic anemia), blood clots (thrombosis), and impaired bone marrow function (not making enough of the three blood components). It has been known to result from somatic mutations in the PIGA gene, which encodes phosphatidylinositol glycan class A (PIGA).Most treatments for PNH aim to reduce symptoms and prevent complications.
LABORATORY APPROACH TO HEMOLYTIC ANEMIAS.pptxSathishS414038
This document provides an overview of laboratory approaches to hemolytic anemias. It begins by outlining the objectives of distinguishing between intravascular and extravascular hemolysis and diagnosing various types of hemolytic anemia based on peripheral blood films and ancillary tests. It then defines hemolytic anemia and classifies it based on underlying defect, mode of onset, and site of hemolysis. The remainder of the document details various laboratory findings, tests, and characteristics that can help diagnose specific causes of hemolytic anemia, including hereditary spherocytosis, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, immune hemolytic anemias, and drug-induced hemolytic anemia.
This document discusses different types of anemia. It defines anemia as a deficiency in red blood cells or hemoglobin. The main causes discussed are decreased red blood cell production, blood loss, and increased red blood cell destruction. Specific types covered include iron deficiency anemia, thalassemia, sideroblastic anemia, aplastic anemia, and hemolytic anemia. Diagnosis and clinical manifestations of different anemias are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of red blood cells (RBCs) and red blood cell disorders. It begins with an introduction to RBCs and their characteristics. It then discusses the history of RBC discovery. The document outlines RBC production (erythropoiesis), hemoglobin, and normal RBC measurements like erythrocyte sedimentation rate and packed cell volume. Major sections cover RBC disorders like anemia, polycythemia, and conditions like iron deficiency anemia, sickle cell anemia, and thalassemia. Management approaches for certain disorders are also summarized.
Approach to pancytopenia .Dr ABHIJEET BARUA MD PGT.KOL.MED.CLG.ABHIJEET BARUA
Pancytopenia is a reduction in red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets caused by decreased bone marrow production or destruction of blood cells. Evaluation of pancytopenia involves examining the complete blood count, peripheral smear, and bone marrow aspiration and biopsy to determine if the cause is aplasia, deficiencies, infections, infiltrative disorders, or primary bone marrow diseases like myelodysplastic syndrome. Management depends on the underlying etiology based on history, examination, and specific diagnostic tests.
Hemolytic anemia results from increased red blood cell destruction coupled with the bone marrow's ability to increase red blood cell production in response. There are two types: congenital/hereditary forms caused by genetic defects, and acquired forms caused by external factors. Common hereditary types include thalassemia from hemoglobin defects, sickle cell anemia from abnormal hemoglobin, and G6PD deficiency from enzyme defects. Symptoms include anemia, jaundice, splenomegaly. Diagnosis involves blood tests showing markers of hemolysis like low haptoglobin, increased LDH and bilirubin. Treatment depends on the underlying cause but may include blood transfusions, iron chelation therapy,
Evaluation and Identification of J'BaFofi the Giant Spider of Congo and Moke...MrSproy
ABSTRACT
The J'BaFofi, or "Giant Spider," is a mainly legendary arachnid by reportedly inhabiting the dense rain forests of
the Congo. As despite numerous anecdotal accounts and cultural references, the scientific validation remains more elusive.
My study aims to proper evaluate the existence of the J'BaFofi through the analysis of historical reports,indigenous
testimonies and modern exploration efforts.
Rodents, Birds and locust_Pests of crops.pdfPirithiRaju
Mole rat or Lesser bandicoot rat, Bandicotabengalensis
•Head -round and broad muzzle
•Tail -shorter than head, body
•Prefers damp areas
•Burrows with scooped soil before entrance
•Potential rat, one pair can produce more than 800 offspringsin one year
Sexuality - Issues, Attitude and Behaviour - Applied Social Psychology - Psyc...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
SDSS1335+0728: The awakening of a ∼ 106M⊙ black hole⋆Sérgio Sacani
Context. The early-type galaxy SDSS J133519.91+072807.4 (hereafter SDSS1335+0728), which had exhibited no prior optical variations during the preceding two decades, began showing significant nuclear variability in the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) alert stream from December 2019 (as ZTF19acnskyy). This variability behaviour, coupled with the host-galaxy properties, suggests that SDSS1335+0728 hosts a ∼ 106M⊙ black hole (BH) that is currently in the process of ‘turning on’. Aims. We present a multi-wavelength photometric analysis and spectroscopic follow-up performed with the aim of better understanding the origin of the nuclear variations detected in SDSS1335+0728. Methods. We used archival photometry (from WISE, 2MASS, SDSS, GALEX, eROSITA) and spectroscopic data (from SDSS and LAMOST) to study the state of SDSS1335+0728 prior to December 2019, and new observations from Swift, SOAR/Goodman, VLT/X-shooter, and Keck/LRIS taken after its turn-on to characterise its current state. We analysed the variability of SDSS1335+0728 in the X-ray/UV/optical/mid-infrared range, modelled its spectral energy distribution prior to and after December 2019, and studied the evolution of its UV/optical spectra. Results. From our multi-wavelength photometric analysis, we find that: (a) since 2021, the UV flux (from Swift/UVOT observations) is four times brighter than the flux reported by GALEX in 2004; (b) since June 2022, the mid-infrared flux has risen more than two times, and the W1−W2 WISE colour has become redder; and (c) since February 2024, the source has begun showing X-ray emission. From our spectroscopic follow-up, we see that (i) the narrow emission line ratios are now consistent with a more energetic ionising continuum; (ii) broad emission lines are not detected; and (iii) the [OIII] line increased its flux ∼ 3.6 years after the first ZTF alert, which implies a relatively compact narrow-line-emitting region. Conclusions. We conclude that the variations observed in SDSS1335+0728 could be either explained by a ∼ 106M⊙ AGN that is just turning on or by an exotic tidal disruption event (TDE). If the former is true, SDSS1335+0728 is one of the strongest cases of an AGNobserved in the process of activating. If the latter were found to be the case, it would correspond to the longest and faintest TDE ever observed (or another class of still unknown nuclear transient). Future observations of SDSS1335+0728 are crucial to further understand its behaviour. Key words. galaxies: active– accretion, accretion discs– galaxies: individual: SDSS J133519.91+072807.4
Microbial interaction
Microorganisms interacts with each other and can be physically associated with another organisms in a variety of ways.
One organism can be located on the surface of another organism as an ectobiont or located within another organism as endobiont.
Microbial interaction may be positive such as mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism or may be negative such as parasitism, predation or competition
Types of microbial interaction
Positive interaction: mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism
Negative interaction: Ammensalism (antagonism), parasitism, predation, competition
I. Mutualism:
It is defined as the relationship in which each organism in interaction gets benefits from association. It is an obligatory relationship in which mutualist and host are metabolically dependent on each other.
Mutualistic relationship is very specific where one member of association cannot be replaced by another species.
Mutualism require close physical contact between interacting organisms.
Relationship of mutualism allows organisms to exist in habitat that could not occupied by either species alone.
Mutualistic relationship between organisms allows them to act as a single organism.
Examples of mutualism:
i. Lichens:
Lichens are excellent example of mutualism.
They are the association of specific fungi and certain genus of algae. In lichen, fungal partner is called mycobiont and algal partner is called
II. Syntrophism:
It is an association in which the growth of one organism either depends on or improved by the substrate provided by another organism.
In syntrophism both organism in association gets benefits.
Compound A
Utilized by population 1
Compound B
Utilized by population 2
Compound C
utilized by both Population 1+2
Products
In this theoretical example of syntrophism, population 1 is able to utilize and metabolize compound A, forming compound B but cannot metabolize beyond compound B without co-operation of population 2. Population 2is unable to utilize compound A but it can metabolize compound B forming compound C. Then both population 1 and 2 are able to carry out metabolic reaction which leads to formation of end product that neither population could produce alone.
Examples of syntrophism:
i. Methanogenic ecosystem in sludge digester
Methane produced by methanogenic bacteria depends upon interspecies hydrogen transfer by other fermentative bacteria.
Anaerobic fermentative bacteria generate CO2 and H2 utilizing carbohydrates which is then utilized by methanogenic bacteria (Methanobacter) to produce methane.
ii. Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis:
In the minimal media, Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis are able to grow together but not alone.
The synergistic relationship between E. faecalis and L. arobinosus occurs in which E. faecalis require folic acid
Hariyalikart Case Study of helping farmers in Biharrajsaurav589
Helping farmers all across India through our latest technologies of modern farming like drones for irrigation and best pest control For more visit : https://www.hariyalikart.com/case-study
Mapping the Growth of Supermassive Black Holes as a Function of Galaxy Stella...Sérgio Sacani
The growth of supermassive black holes is strongly linked to their galaxies. It has been shown that the population
mean black hole accretion rate (BHAR) primarily correlates with the galaxy stellar mass (Må) and redshift for the
general galaxy population. This work aims to provide the best measurements of BHAR as a function of Må and
redshift over ranges of 109.5 < Må < 1012 Me and z < 4. We compile an unprecedentedly large sample with 8000
active galactic nuclei (AGNs) and 1.3 million normal galaxies from nine high-quality survey fields following a
wedding cake design. We further develop a semiparametric Bayesian method that can reasonably estimate BHAR
and the corresponding uncertainties, even for sparsely populated regions in the parameter space. BHAR is
constrained by X-ray surveys sampling the AGN accretion power and UV-to-infrared multiwavelength surveys
sampling the galaxy population. Our results can independently predict the X-ray luminosity function (XLF) from
the galaxy stellar mass function (SMF), and the prediction is consistent with the observed XLF. We also try adding
external constraints from the observed SMF and XLF. We further measure BHAR for star-forming and quiescent
galaxies and show that star-forming BHAR is generally larger than or at least comparable to the quiescent BHAR.
Unified Astronomy Thesaurus concepts: Supermassive black holes (1663); X-ray active galactic nuclei (2035);
Galaxies (573)
Order : Trombidiformes (Acarina) Class : Arachnida
Mites normally feed on the undersurface of the leaves but the symptoms are more easily seen on the uppersurface.
Tetranychids produce blotching (Spots) on the leaf-surface.
Tarsonemids and Eriophyids produce distortion (twist), puckering (Folds) or stunting (Short) of leaves.
Eriophyids produce distinct galls or blisters (fluid-filled sac in the outer layer)
This presentation offers a general idea of the structure of seed, seed production, management of seeds and its allied technologies. It also offers the concept of gene erosion and the practices used to control it. Nursery and gardening have been widely explored along with their importance in the related domain.
Mechanics:- Simple and Compound PendulumPravinHudge1
a compound pendulum is a physical system with a more complex structure than a simple pendulum, incorporating its mass distribution and dimensions into its oscillatory motion around a fixed axis. Understanding its dynamics involves principles of rotational mechanics and the interplay between gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy. Compound pendulums are used in various scientific and engineering applications, such as seismology for measuring earthquakes, in clocks to maintain accurate timekeeping, and in mechanical systems to study oscillatory motion dynamics.
3. RBC:PATHOLOGICAL FORMS
:VARIATION
IN SIZE OF RBC
• SLIGHT ANISOCYTOSIS
COMMON IN CATTLE
:VARIATIO
N IN SHAPE OF RBC
RBC
HAVING NARROW RIM OF
Hb SURROUNDING
CENTRAL LARGE PALE
AREA.ALSO CALLED
PESSARY CELLS
4. :RBC
CONTAINS BLUE STAINING
GRANULES SCATTERED
THROUGHOUT-REMNANT
OF RNA
• INTENSE
ERYTHROGENESIS IN
ANAPLASMOSIS[BOVINES]
HAEMONCHOSIS[SHEEP]
• LEAD POISONING
6. :THIN
RBC WITH LARGER SURFACE
WITHOUT INCREASES IN
VOLUME
• PATTERNS OF LEPTOCYTES:
:RBC WITH
CENTRAL ROUNDED OF
PIGMENTED
MATERIAL,SURROUNDED BY
CLEAR ZONE WITHOUT
PIGMENT AND DENSE RING OF
CYTOPLASM AROUND
PERIPHERY
:RAISED FOLD
7. • BONE MARROW DEPRESSION
ANEMIA
• AGING CHANGE
• CHRONIC
INFECTIONS:SUGGESTED WHEN
THERE IS ABSENCE OF
ERYTHROGENESIS
• INHERITED OR ACQUIRED
METABOLIC INTERFERENCE
WITH RBC METABOLISM
• SPLENIC DISEASE OR
SPLEENECTOMY
• HYPERLIPEMIA AND
HYPERCHOLESTERMIA
8. SICKLE SHAPED RBC
• SEEN IN BLOOD EXPOSED TO
MORE THAN FEW SECONDS TO
O2[DURING BLOOD SMEAR
PREP.,MIXING OF BLOOD]
• ALKALOSIS INDUCES SICKLING
• SEEN IN HUMANS:GENETIC
DEFECT CAUSING MUTATION
INBETA-GLOBIN GENE,IN WHICH
HYDROPHILIC GLUTAMIC ACID
SUBSITUTED BY HYDROPHBIC
VALINE,FORMING HB S]
9. :ELLIPTICAL
RBC
• NORMAL IN CAMEL
• FAULTY SMEAR MAKING
TECHNIQUE
• LIVER DISEASE IN CAT
• MYELOFIBROSIS IN
DOG
• INHERITED/CONGENITA
L RBC ABNORMALITY
10. :2 TYPES
:HAVE REGULARLY PLACED
TENT SHAPED PROJECTIONS FROM
SURFACE AND HAVE CENTRAL PALLOR AREA
• SEEN IN DEHYDRATED ANIMALS
• IN BLOOD FILMS WHEN FILM DRIES SLOWLY
:PROJECTIONS
ARE IRREGULARLY PLACED,HAVE VARIABLE
SIZED KNOBS ON TIPS OF SPIKY
PROJECTIONS,NO CENTRAL PALLOR AREA
• RENAL AND LIVER DISESASE
• IRON DEFICIENCY ANEMIA
• MICROANGIOPATHY[FORMATION OF SMALL
FIBRIN CLOTS IN CAPILLARY]
• VASCULAR
NEOPLASIA[HAEMANGIOSARCOMA]
11. :SMALL
SPHERE SHAPED RBC WITH NO
CENTRAL PALLOR
• SEEN IN IMHA.FORMED WHEN
MACROPHAGE REMOVES
ABNORMAL PORTION OF RBC
MEMBRANE.CAUSING RBC TO
FORM SPHERE SHAPE
• HYPERSPLENISM
• ZN AND CU TOXICITY
12. :SMALL
FRAGMENTS OF RBC
,IRREGULAR IN SIZE AND SHAPE
• MICROANGIOPATHY
• DIC
• VALVULAR
STENOSIS,VASCULAR
NEOPLASIA
• IRON DEFECIENCY ANEMIA
• DOXORUBICIN TOXICITY
13. :RBC WITH
FUSION OF A PORTION OF CELL
MEMBRANE THAT CAUSES HB
TO BE PUSHED TO SIDE
• OXIDATIVE INJURY CAUSES
FUSION
• ZN,ONIONTOXICITY
• INHERITED ENZYME
DEFECTS[GLUCOSE6-
PHOSPHATE DEHYDROGENASE]
14. :RBC
HAVING SMALL BLISTERS
ON SURFACE THAT
RUPTURE
• SEEN WITH INCREASED
FRAGILITY,MICROANGIOPAT
HY,OXIDATIVE INJURY
:OVAL SAPED
CELLS WITH SMALL SPIKES
ON SURFACE
• FELINE HEPATIC LIPIDOSIS
17. RBC SMALLER
THAN NORMAL
• IRON DEFICIENCY ANEMIA
• INTENSE ERYTHROGENESIS
• AGING
:IMMATURE
ERYTHROYTE
• MEGALOBLASTIC ANEMIA,B12
AND FOLIC ACID DEFECIENCY
18. ERYTHROCYTIC INCLUSIONS
NUCLEAR REMNANTS
IN YOUNG RBCS
• NORMAL IN FELINE AND EQUINE
RBC UPTO 1PERCENT OF RBC
• INDICATE INCREASED RBC
PROD:
• REGENERATIVE ANEMIA
• FOLLOWING ACUTE BLOOD
LOSS
• POORLY FUNCTONING SPLEEN
MAY NOT BE ABLE TO REMOVE
NUCLEAR
REMNANTS[SPLENECTOMY]
19. :INTRAERYTHROCYTIC
MASS OF DENATURED
GLOBIN,IRREGULAR IN SHAPE
• SEEN WITH METHYLENE
BLUE,NOT ROMANOWSKY STAIN
• HAEMOLTIC ANEMIA WITH:
• PHENOTHIAZINE
• PHENYLHYDRAZINE
• NA NITRATE
• GLUCOSE 6 PHOSPHATE
DEHYDROGENASE DEFECIENCY
20. DYSHAEMOPOIETIC ANEMIA
• DEFECTIVE FORMATION OF STROMA PROTEIN OR
HAEMOGLOBIN
:REQ. FOR NORMAL SYNTHESIS OF
HAEME
• IF CERTAIN ENZYMES ARE LACKING,HAEME IS NOT
SYNTHESIZED AND PORPHYRINS FOUND IN URINE
:IN BOVINES AND PIGS
• PIGMENT IS PHOTOSENSITIVE AND SO WHEN DEPOSITED
IN TEETH TAKES RED COLOR PINK TOOTH. IN BONE, IT
CAUSES OSTEOHAEMOCHROMATOSIS
21. • PHOTODYNAMIC DERMATITIS IF EXPOSED TO SUNLIGHT
:BLOOD PICTURE IS
MACROCYTIC AND NORMOCHROMIC OR HYPOCHROMIC
• BONE MARROW SHOWS MEGALOBLASTS
• DIETIC DEFICIENCY OF EXTRINSIC FACTOR
• DIETIC DEFICIENCY OF FOLIC ACID
• DEFICIENCY OF INTRINSIC FACTOR
22. :EMF MAY NOT BE UTILISED OR MAY
NOT BE MOBILISED FROM LIVER CAUSING MACROCYTIC
ANEMIA CALLED ACHRESTIC ANEMIA
• BLOOD PICTURE IS
• DIETIC DEFECIENCY OF IRON,COPPER,ASCORBIC
ACID,PYRIDOXINE,NICOTINIC ACID,RIBOFLAVIN,THYROXINE
ETC
23. APLASTIC ANEMIA
• OCCURS DUE TO APLASIA OF BONE MARROW
• NON REGENERATIVE ANEMIA
• 2 TYPES:
:RARE
:NEOPLASMS,DEFECIENCY OF
VIT K,C, PROTHROMBIN
,IONIZING RADIATION,CHEMICAL POISONING
:OCCURS IN BABY PIGS THAT ARE BORN OF
SOWS SUFFERING FROM PROTEIN MALNUTRITION
DURING PREGNANCY
24. MYELOPHTHISIC ANEMIA
• REPLACEMENT OF BONE MARROW BY OTHER
TISSUES
• IN THIS,IMMATURE FORMS OF WBCS SEEN,THUS
C/A
• SECONDARY METASTASES OF TUMOR
• OSTEODYSTROPHY:MYELOID TISSUE REPLACED BY
CT
25. HAEMOLYTIC ANEMIA
• INTRAVASCULAR DESTRUCTION OF RBC OCCURS
• REGENERATIVE ANEMIA
• PRESENCE OF ABNORMAL AUTO- ANTIBODIES:
• PRIMARY OR IDIOPATHIC
• SECONDARY TO MALIGNANT DISEASE
• VIRAL DISEASE[INFECTIOUS MONONUCLEOSIS]
• ABNORMAL ISO ANTIBODIES
• CHEMICALS:
• ONION POISONING:HAEMOGLOBINURIAAND ICTERUS
• CASTOR SEED[RICIN]
• PHENOTHIAZINE:HEPATITIS,NEPHRITIS,HAEMOGLOBINUREA
• NAPHTHALENE
• SNAKE VENOM:LECITHINASE ACTS ON LECITHIN ,LYOLECITHIN FORMED IS HAEMOLYTIC
• POST PARTURIENT HAEMOGLOBINURIA
• INFECTIONS:ANAPLASMOSIS,BABESIOSIS,EHRLICHIOSIS,LEPTOSPIROSIS,CLOSTRIDIA,EQUINE INFECTIOUS ANEMIA
ETC
• COLD HAEMOGLOBINUREA IN CALVES
26. TERMINOLOGY
• MEAN CORPUSCULAR VOLUME:
• IT EXPRESSES AVG VOLUME OF RBC AND IS CAL. AS:
• MCV=PCV*10/RBC
COUNT[MILLION/MICROLITRE]FEMTOLITRES
• MEAN CORPUSCULAR Hb CONCENTRATION:RATIO OF
WEIGHT OF Hb TO VOLUME IN WHICH ITS CONTAINER
• MCHC=HB[G/DL]*100/PCV [UNIT:G/DECILITER]
• MEAN CORPUSCULAR Hb:
• ITS THE AMOUNT OF HB
• MCG=HB[G/DL]*10/RBC COUNT[UNIT:PICOGRAMS]
28. • MICROCYTIC:DECREASED MCV
• CAUSES:
• IRON,CU,HAEMATOPOIETIC FACTOR DEFICIENCY
• NORMOCHROMIC:NORMAL MCHC
• CAUSES:
• IN MANY TYPES OF ANEMIA,INCREASE OR
DECREASE IN AVERAGE SIZE OF CELL IS
ACCOMPANIED BY INCREASE OR DECREASE IN Hb
CONTENT,SO NORMOCHROMIC
30. POLYCYTHEMIA
• INCREASE IN CIRCULATING RBCS .NORMOCHROMIC AND
NORMOCYTIC
• RELATIVE:REDUCTION IN TOTAL BLOOD VOLUME AND SO
INCREASED CON. OF NORMAL NO. OF RBC
• DEHYDRATION
• SHOCK
• BURNS
• ACUTE CIRCULATORY FAILURE
• STRESS POLYCYTHEMIA[GAISBOCKS SYNDROME]
• TRANSIENT POLYCYTHEMIA IN CONDITIONS OF
EXERCISE,STRESS
31. :INCREASE IN TOTAL NO. OF RBC,BLOOD VOLUME
REMAINS SAME
:POLYCYTHEMIA VERA:TUMOR OF ERYTHROPOEITIC
MARROW
:INCREASED STIMULATION OF RBC PRODUCTION
HYPOXIA:ERYTHROPOIETIN RELEASED IN RESPONSE TO TISSUE
HYPOXIA
CHRONIC PULMONARY DISEASE
HEART DISEASE
HAEMOGLOBINOPATHIES:METHAEMOGLOBINEMIA
PHYSIOLOGIC IN NEONATAL
32. OLIGOCYTHEMIA
• DECREASE IN QUANTITY OF RBC IN PERIPHERAL
BLOOD
:INCREASE IN TOTAL BLOOD
VOLUME[WITH NORMAL NUMBER OF RBC]AND
ULTIMATELY REDUCED RBC CONC. CAUSING
HAEMODILUTION
:PRODUCTION OF RBC IS EQUAL TO
DESTRUCTION.ITS GROUPED INTO:
• PRODUCTION LOW,DESTRUCTION
NORMAL:DYSHAEMOPOEITIC ANEMIA
• PROD. NORMAL DESTRUCTION
EXCESSIVE:HAEMOLYTIC,HAEMORRHAGIC ANEMIA
33. PATHOLOGY OF WBC
:DEGENERATIVE
CELL THAT HAS RUPTURED ,IN
WHICH NUCLEUS APPEARSAS A
PALE STAINING SMEAR
WITHOUT PROPER
SHAPE[SMUDGED CELL]
:CRYSTAL FOUND IN
SECRETIONS FROM SITES
WHERE EOSINOPHILS ARE IN
ABUNDANCE[BRONCHIAL
SECRETIONS IN ASTHMATICS]
34. :SMALL OR
OVAL,GRAY BLUE BODIES
IN CYTOPLASM OF
NEUTROPHILS,FORMED
FROM INCOMPLETE
UTILIZATION OF RNA IN
MATURATION. SEEN IN
TOXIC EFFECTS
:H
AVING DARK BLUE
CYTOPLASM WITH MATURE
NUCLEUS
35. :CONTAIN
DARK PURPLE AND COARSER
GRANULES,BASOPHILIC
CYTOPLASM
• INFECTION,TOXEMIA
:GENERALIZED,NEOPLA
STIC MALIGNANT PROLIFERATION
OF LEUKOCYTIC TISSUE[BONE
MARROW,LYMPHOID TISSUE,RES
AND PLASMA CELL SYSTEM]
36. :NEOPLA
SIA OF LYMPHOID SYSTEM
:NEOPLASTIC
PROLIFERATION OF
RETICULUM CELLS OF
LYMPH NODES OR OTHER
RETICULOENDOTHELIAL
TISSUE CAUSING TUMOR
38. NEUTROPHILIA
• INCREASE IN NUMBER OF NEUTROPHILS IN PERIPHERAL
BLOOD
:IMMATUREFORMS ARE LITTLE MORE DUE TO
MARROW STIMULATION
:IMMATURE
FORMS ARE ARE FAR MORE DUE TO SEVERE INFECTION
• INFLAMMATORY LEUKOGRAM HAS NEUTROPHILIA,NORMAL
NEUTROPHIL COUNT OR NEUTROPENIA
SHOWS
NEUTROPHILIA WITH SHIFT TO LEFT
39. • NEUTOPHILIA WITH IMMATURE FORMS OUTNUMBERING MATURE
ONES
• NORMAL NEUTROPHIL COUNT AND MORE IMMATURE FORMS
• NEUTROPENIA WITH MORE IMMATURE FORMS
• COMPENSATED LEFT SHIFT LEUKOGRAM SEEN IN CHRONIC OR
FOCAL INFECTION
• DECOMPENSATED LEFT SHIFT LEUKOGRAM SEEN IN
PNEUMONIA,PYELONEPHRITIS,OPEN PYOMETRA,ENTERITIS ETC
• STRESS LEUKOGRAM[STEROID INDUCED] IS ASSOCIATED WITH
LYMPHOPENIA AND MONOCYTOSIS
• EPINEPHRINE INDUCED NEUTROPHILIA[EXCITEMENT]IS ASSOCIATED
WITH CONCURRENT INCREASE IN LYMPHOCYTE
42. • PARASITIC INFECTIONS
• SKIN AFFECTIONS:ECZEMA
• FOLLOWING SPLEENECTOMY
• FOLLOWING MILD IRRADIATION
• FOLLOWING ADMINISTRATION OF POISONS AND
DRUGS:CU,ARSENIC,CHLORPROMAZINE
43. LEUKEMIA
• PRIMARY NEOPLASTIC DISEASE OF BONE MARROW AND
OTHER RETICULOENDOTHELIAL TISSUES
:INCREASE IN NEOPLASTIC CELLS IN
BLOOD
CONDITIONS WHERE BLOOD
PICTURE IS RELATIVELY NORMAL
• NEOPLASIA OF GRANULOPOEITIC TISSUE IS CALLED
• LEUKEMIA IS ALWAYS FATAL
• IN ANIMALS,LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA IS CALLED
LYMPHOCYTOMA,MALIGNANT LYMPHOMA OR
LYMPHOSARCOMA
44. CATTLE
• LYMPHATIC LEUKEMIA COMMON
• ALL LYMPH NODES ENLARGED,METASTASIS FOUND
IN LIVER,HEART,ABOMASUM,OMASUM,RETICULUM
• BLOOD PICTURE SHOWS BLAST CELLS,ANEMIA.
• NEUTROPHILIA MAYBE PRESENT
45. DOG
• MOSTLY LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA IS SEEN
• A FEW CASES OF GRANULOCYTIC AND MONOCYTIC
LEUKEMIA ARE DESCRIBED
• IN LYMPHOCYTIC VARIETY,GENERALISED
LYMPHADENOPATHY IS SEEN
• MODERATE NEUTROPHILIA IS OBSERVED
• ANEMIA IS COMMON
• HODGKINS DISEASES IS REPORTED IN DOGS
47. PLASMA CELL MYELOMA
• ITS RAREL FOUND IN MAN AND CALLED EWINGS
TUMOR
• ITS OF RARE OCCURENCE IN ANIMALS
• FOUND MOSTLY IN BONE MARROW
• BLOOD PICTURE MAY OR MAY NOT SHOW
NEOPLASTIC CELLS
• PERSONS SUFFERING EXCRETE BENCE JONES
PROTEINS IN URINE