This document discusses techniques for pedicle screw insertion during spinal surgery. It describes the lumbar vertebrae anatomy and steps for pedicle screw placement, including defining the entry point, opening the cortex, probing the pedicle tract, appropriate cranial-caudal and medial-lateral trajectories, tapping if needed, and inserting the screw across the pedicle and into the vertebral body. An example case is provided of a 25-year-old male patient who underwent this procedure to treat an L1 vertebral fracture with paraplegia.
The ACL provides primary stability to the knee by limiting anterior tibial translation. It has an average tensile strength of 2160 N. An ACL tear is commonly seen in sports involving sudden stops and changes in direction. Clinical exams like the Lachman and anterior drawer tests can indicate an ACL tear. MRI is the gold standard for diagnosis. While conservative treatment is possible, surgery is often pursued to reconstruct the torn ligament using grafts like the patellar tendon. Post-operative rehabilitation and physiotherapy are important for a successful recovery.
This document discusses techniques for pedicle screw insertion during spinal surgery. It describes the lumbar vertebrae anatomy and steps for pedicle screw placement, including defining the entry point, opening the cortex, probing the pedicle tract, appropriate cranial-caudal and medial-lateral trajectories, tapping if needed, and inserting the screw across the pedicle and into the vertebral body. An example case is provided of a 25-year-old male patient who underwent this procedure to treat an L1 vertebral fracture with paraplegia.
The ACL provides primary stability to the knee by limiting anterior tibial translation. It has an average tensile strength of 2160 N. An ACL tear is commonly seen in sports involving sudden stops and changes in direction. Clinical exams like the Lachman and anterior drawer tests can indicate an ACL tear. MRI is the gold standard for diagnosis. While conservative treatment is possible, surgery is often pursued to reconstruct the torn ligament using grafts like the patellar tendon. Post-operative rehabilitation and physiotherapy are important for a successful recovery.
This document discusses posterolateral corner injuries of the knee. It provides details on the anatomy, mechanisms of injury, clinical evaluation, imaging, and treatment of these injuries. Key points include:
- The posterolateral corner is made up of several static and dynamic stabilizers including the LCL, popliteus tendon, popliteofibular ligament, and biceps femoris tendon.
- Injuries can range from grade I sprains to grade III complete ligament disruptions and are often associated with injuries to other knee ligaments.
- Evaluation involves assessing varus and rotational stability along with imaging like MRI to identify injured structures.
- Treatment ranges from bracing and rehabilitation for
A discoidal meniscus is an abnormal development where the meniscus is larger and disc-shaped rather than crescent shaped. It most commonly involves the lateral meniscus. It can be classified as complete, incomplete, or Wrisberg type based on its shape and attachments. Patients often present in adolescence with pain, clicking, and mechanical locking symptoms. Imaging like MRI is recommended and will show a thickened, flat meniscus extending across the entire lateral compartment. Management involves observation for asymptomatic cases without tears, while symptomatic cases or those with tears may require partial meniscectomy or saucerization surgery.
The document discusses reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (rTSA), including:
- The procedure reverses the ball and socket of the shoulder joint.
- It was approved for use in the US in 2004.
- The new design moves the center of rotation medially and inferiorly, increasing deltoid tension and function as the primary shoulder elevator.
- Indications include severe rotator cuff deficiency or previous TSA failure. Contraindications include infection or inadequate bone stock. Potential complications range from minor issues like stiffness or hematoma to more serious problems like prosthesis loosening or nerve damage.
This document discusses various angular deformities of the knee, including genu varum (bowlegged), genu valgus (knock-kneed), genu recurvatum, and genu procurvatum. It provides details on the causes, presentations, treatments, and assessments of genu varum and genu valgus. For genu varum, treatment may involve observation, bracing, or osteotomy, while genu valgus can be treated with observation, bracing, hemiepiphysiodesis, or osteotomy in more severe cases. Assessments involve measurements like intermalleolar distance and Q angle to evaluate deformities.
This document discusses the biomechanics of the hip joint. It begins by defining biomechanics and describing the mobility and stability of the hip. It then discusses forces acting on the hip like body weight, abductor muscles, and joint reaction forces. It explains how these forces are balanced in different positions like two-leg stance, single-leg stance, and with the use of a cane. The document concludes by discussing implications for conditions like coxa valga and coxa vara, and principles of total hip replacement surgery.
This document discusses scapholunate advanced collapse (SLAC) and scaphoid nonunion advanced collapse (SNAC), two common patterns of post-traumatic wrist arthritis. It describes the etiology, anatomy, radiographic features, classifications, effects on joint kinematics, differential diagnosis, and treatment options for both conditions. Surgical treatments include four-corner arthrodesis, capitolunate arthrodesis, scaphoidectomy, proximal row carpectomy, and complete wrist arthrodesis. Both SLAC and SNAC can lead to abnormal joint motion and progressive degenerative arthritis if left untreated.
Total shoulder arthroplasty and reverse TSA - Hussain AlgawahmedHussainAlgawahmedMBB
This document discusses shoulder arthritis and treatment options including total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA) and reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (rTSA). It provides details on patient cases, anatomy, biomechanics, types of arthritis, and principles of TSA and rTSA. For a 50-year-old patient with shoulder pain, options could include TSA if the rotator cuff and glenoid are intact. An rTSA may be considered for a patient with a massive rotator cuff tear or pseudoparalysis. The document reviews indications, surgical techniques, and complications for both procedures.
The document provides guidance on examining the knee to identify various injuries and conditions. It describes inspecting for swelling, effusion or alignment issues. Palpation techniques are outlined to check for tenderness in specific areas that could indicate injuries like meniscus tears, patellar tendinitis, or pes anserine bursitis. Range of motion and special tests for ligaments and meniscus are defined, such as Lachman's test for ACL tears and McMurray's test for meniscal tears. The exam should also rule out referred pain from other structures and compare findings to the uninjured knee.
Ankle and foot injuries can include ligament sprains, fractures, and tendon injuries. The most common ankle injury is a lateral ankle sprain caused by inversion of the foot. Ankle sprains are graded based on severity from grade 1 to 3. Fractures of the ankle include fractures of the medial and lateral malleoli. Other injuries discussed include fractures of the talus, calcaneus, metatarsals and phalanges. Injuries are treated initially with RICE and rehabilitation, while more severe injuries may require surgery. Complications can include malunion, nonunion, arthritis and tendonitis.
This document discusses the surgical anatomy and treatment of varus knee deformities. It describes Maquet's line and how it is medialized in varus knees. It then classifies varus deformities into 5 categories and details the surgical steps to correct it, including: creating a medial sleeve; removing osteophytes; checking and releasing ligaments like PCL, semimembranosus, and superficial MCL if gaps remain tight; and lateralizing the tibial component by shifting and reducing it. The goal is to create symmetrical extension and flexion gaps and restore the mechanical axis.
A 36-year-old Thai woman fell from her motorcycle and injured her right wrist. Radiographs showed a comminuted intra-articular fracture of the base of the first metacarpal bone, known as a Rolando fracture. The fracture was treated with application of a thumb spica cast initially, followed by open reduction internal fixation using a miniplate to surgically repair the fracture fragments. Rolando fractures involve comminution of the base of the first metacarpal and typically result in worse prognosis and higher risk of post-traumatic osteoarthritis compared to other thumb metacarpal fractures like Bennett fractures.
This document discusses tuberculosis of the knee joint. It begins by providing background on skeletal tuberculosis and noting that the knee joint is the third most common site. It then describes the typical 3 stage progression of knee joint tuberculosis over 3-5 years from synovial involvement to joint destruction to repair. Key diagnostic signs and symptoms at each stage are outlined. Treatment approaches are also summarized, including use of antitubercular drugs, drainage of abscesses, traction, synovectomy, and arthrodesis.
This document provides an overview of acetabular fracture anatomy, classification, and radiographic evaluation. It describes the key osteology and columns of the acetabulum. The Judet and Letournel classification system is explained, categorizing fractures as elementary or associated based on involvement of the anterior or posterior columns. Important aspects of radiographic evaluation using AP, oblique, and CT views are outlined. Examples of common fracture types are illustrated, including posterior wall, posterior column, and anterior wall fractures. Roof arc measurement is introduced as a method to assess fracture stability and treatment approach.
Monteggia fracture dislocation in chldrenHamid Hejrati
The document summarizes the Monteggia fracture-dislocation classification system in children. It describes the four types of Monteggia injuries (Types I-IV) based on the location of the ulna fracture and direction of radial head dislocation. For each type, it provides details on injury mechanism, clinical findings, treatment approach including closed or open reduction, and immobilization methods. It also discusses associated injuries and Monteggia equivalent lesions that present similarly to the four main types.
The document discusses the history and evolution of bearing surfaces used in total hip arthroplasty. Early designs from the 1910s-1950s used materials like glass, vitallium, and acrylic, which caused issues like fragmentation, tissue reactions, and bone destruction. Modern designs include conventional and cross-linked polyethylene, metal-on-metal, ceramic-on-ceramic, and ceramic-on-metal combinations. Design characteristics like material hardness, lubrication, and wear properties were improved but each bearing surface still carries some risks like wear debris, metal ions, fracture, or noise. Future directions include advanced polyethylenes and larger metal-on-metal designs to reduce wear. No single ideal bearing exists and patient factors help
Pediatric Congenital Forearm and ElbowJeffrey Wint
This document discusses congenital problems of the forearm and elbow, including amputations, radioulnar synostosis, and embryology. It notes that amputations below the elbow are the most common transverse deficiency and are rarely associated with other anomalies. Radioulnar synostosis occurs when the radius and ulna fail to separate during development. It describes two types and notes that surgery through osteotomy may be used to improve pronation when fixed at over 60 degrees, but mild cases under 30 degrees often do not require treatment. The document reviews embryology and postnatal development of the elbow region.
This document discusses posterolateral corner injuries of the knee. It provides details on the anatomy, mechanisms of injury, clinical evaluation, imaging, and treatment of these injuries. Key points include:
- The posterolateral corner is made up of several static and dynamic stabilizers including the LCL, popliteus tendon, popliteofibular ligament, and biceps femoris tendon.
- Injuries can range from grade I sprains to grade III complete ligament disruptions and are often associated with injuries to other knee ligaments.
- Evaluation involves assessing varus and rotational stability along with imaging like MRI to identify injured structures.
- Treatment ranges from bracing and rehabilitation for
A discoidal meniscus is an abnormal development where the meniscus is larger and disc-shaped rather than crescent shaped. It most commonly involves the lateral meniscus. It can be classified as complete, incomplete, or Wrisberg type based on its shape and attachments. Patients often present in adolescence with pain, clicking, and mechanical locking symptoms. Imaging like MRI is recommended and will show a thickened, flat meniscus extending across the entire lateral compartment. Management involves observation for asymptomatic cases without tears, while symptomatic cases or those with tears may require partial meniscectomy or saucerization surgery.
The document discusses reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (rTSA), including:
- The procedure reverses the ball and socket of the shoulder joint.
- It was approved for use in the US in 2004.
- The new design moves the center of rotation medially and inferiorly, increasing deltoid tension and function as the primary shoulder elevator.
- Indications include severe rotator cuff deficiency or previous TSA failure. Contraindications include infection or inadequate bone stock. Potential complications range from minor issues like stiffness or hematoma to more serious problems like prosthesis loosening or nerve damage.
This document discusses various angular deformities of the knee, including genu varum (bowlegged), genu valgus (knock-kneed), genu recurvatum, and genu procurvatum. It provides details on the causes, presentations, treatments, and assessments of genu varum and genu valgus. For genu varum, treatment may involve observation, bracing, or osteotomy, while genu valgus can be treated with observation, bracing, hemiepiphysiodesis, or osteotomy in more severe cases. Assessments involve measurements like intermalleolar distance and Q angle to evaluate deformities.
This document discusses the biomechanics of the hip joint. It begins by defining biomechanics and describing the mobility and stability of the hip. It then discusses forces acting on the hip like body weight, abductor muscles, and joint reaction forces. It explains how these forces are balanced in different positions like two-leg stance, single-leg stance, and with the use of a cane. The document concludes by discussing implications for conditions like coxa valga and coxa vara, and principles of total hip replacement surgery.
This document discusses scapholunate advanced collapse (SLAC) and scaphoid nonunion advanced collapse (SNAC), two common patterns of post-traumatic wrist arthritis. It describes the etiology, anatomy, radiographic features, classifications, effects on joint kinematics, differential diagnosis, and treatment options for both conditions. Surgical treatments include four-corner arthrodesis, capitolunate arthrodesis, scaphoidectomy, proximal row carpectomy, and complete wrist arthrodesis. Both SLAC and SNAC can lead to abnormal joint motion and progressive degenerative arthritis if left untreated.
Total shoulder arthroplasty and reverse TSA - Hussain AlgawahmedHussainAlgawahmedMBB
This document discusses shoulder arthritis and treatment options including total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA) and reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (rTSA). It provides details on patient cases, anatomy, biomechanics, types of arthritis, and principles of TSA and rTSA. For a 50-year-old patient with shoulder pain, options could include TSA if the rotator cuff and glenoid are intact. An rTSA may be considered for a patient with a massive rotator cuff tear or pseudoparalysis. The document reviews indications, surgical techniques, and complications for both procedures.
The document provides guidance on examining the knee to identify various injuries and conditions. It describes inspecting for swelling, effusion or alignment issues. Palpation techniques are outlined to check for tenderness in specific areas that could indicate injuries like meniscus tears, patellar tendinitis, or pes anserine bursitis. Range of motion and special tests for ligaments and meniscus are defined, such as Lachman's test for ACL tears and McMurray's test for meniscal tears. The exam should also rule out referred pain from other structures and compare findings to the uninjured knee.
Ankle and foot injuries can include ligament sprains, fractures, and tendon injuries. The most common ankle injury is a lateral ankle sprain caused by inversion of the foot. Ankle sprains are graded based on severity from grade 1 to 3. Fractures of the ankle include fractures of the medial and lateral malleoli. Other injuries discussed include fractures of the talus, calcaneus, metatarsals and phalanges. Injuries are treated initially with RICE and rehabilitation, while more severe injuries may require surgery. Complications can include malunion, nonunion, arthritis and tendonitis.
This document discusses the surgical anatomy and treatment of varus knee deformities. It describes Maquet's line and how it is medialized in varus knees. It then classifies varus deformities into 5 categories and details the surgical steps to correct it, including: creating a medial sleeve; removing osteophytes; checking and releasing ligaments like PCL, semimembranosus, and superficial MCL if gaps remain tight; and lateralizing the tibial component by shifting and reducing it. The goal is to create symmetrical extension and flexion gaps and restore the mechanical axis.
A 36-year-old Thai woman fell from her motorcycle and injured her right wrist. Radiographs showed a comminuted intra-articular fracture of the base of the first metacarpal bone, known as a Rolando fracture. The fracture was treated with application of a thumb spica cast initially, followed by open reduction internal fixation using a miniplate to surgically repair the fracture fragments. Rolando fractures involve comminution of the base of the first metacarpal and typically result in worse prognosis and higher risk of post-traumatic osteoarthritis compared to other thumb metacarpal fractures like Bennett fractures.
This document discusses tuberculosis of the knee joint. It begins by providing background on skeletal tuberculosis and noting that the knee joint is the third most common site. It then describes the typical 3 stage progression of knee joint tuberculosis over 3-5 years from synovial involvement to joint destruction to repair. Key diagnostic signs and symptoms at each stage are outlined. Treatment approaches are also summarized, including use of antitubercular drugs, drainage of abscesses, traction, synovectomy, and arthrodesis.
This document provides an overview of acetabular fracture anatomy, classification, and radiographic evaluation. It describes the key osteology and columns of the acetabulum. The Judet and Letournel classification system is explained, categorizing fractures as elementary or associated based on involvement of the anterior or posterior columns. Important aspects of radiographic evaluation using AP, oblique, and CT views are outlined. Examples of common fracture types are illustrated, including posterior wall, posterior column, and anterior wall fractures. Roof arc measurement is introduced as a method to assess fracture stability and treatment approach.
Monteggia fracture dislocation in chldrenHamid Hejrati
The document summarizes the Monteggia fracture-dislocation classification system in children. It describes the four types of Monteggia injuries (Types I-IV) based on the location of the ulna fracture and direction of radial head dislocation. For each type, it provides details on injury mechanism, clinical findings, treatment approach including closed or open reduction, and immobilization methods. It also discusses associated injuries and Monteggia equivalent lesions that present similarly to the four main types.
The document discusses the history and evolution of bearing surfaces used in total hip arthroplasty. Early designs from the 1910s-1950s used materials like glass, vitallium, and acrylic, which caused issues like fragmentation, tissue reactions, and bone destruction. Modern designs include conventional and cross-linked polyethylene, metal-on-metal, ceramic-on-ceramic, and ceramic-on-metal combinations. Design characteristics like material hardness, lubrication, and wear properties were improved but each bearing surface still carries some risks like wear debris, metal ions, fracture, or noise. Future directions include advanced polyethylenes and larger metal-on-metal designs to reduce wear. No single ideal bearing exists and patient factors help
Pediatric Congenital Forearm and ElbowJeffrey Wint
This document discusses congenital problems of the forearm and elbow, including amputations, radioulnar synostosis, and embryology. It notes that amputations below the elbow are the most common transverse deficiency and are rarely associated with other anomalies. Radioulnar synostosis occurs when the radius and ulna fail to separate during development. It describes two types and notes that surgery through osteotomy may be used to improve pronation when fixed at over 60 degrees, but mild cases under 30 degrees often do not require treatment. The document reviews embryology and postnatal development of the elbow region.
Ovdje možete vidjeti moj seminarski rad na kojem sam radio u decembru 2016. godine. Rad je iz oblasti korektivne gimnastike. Tema: ,, Pokreti mišića ruke i testiranje jačine mišića.“
Tetrodotoxin is a potent neurotoxin found in marine animals like pufferfish. It blocks sodium channels, preventing action potentials and paralyzing neurons and muscles. Poisoning symptoms range from numbness to respiratory failure and death. The toxin is produced by various bacteria in marine life. While rare, poisoning is more common where pufferfish is regularly consumed. There is no antidote, so treatment focuses on supportive care and monitoring until the toxin is cleared from the body.
1) The Sgarbossa criteria provide guidelines for diagnosing acute myocardial infarction in patients with left bundle branch block (LBB) or ventricular paced rhythm on electrocardiogram (ECG), as these conditions can obscure ECG changes.
2) The original Sgarbossa criteria included three criteria involving concordant or discordant ST segment changes greater than 1mm. The modified criteria expanded this to include proportionally excessive discordant ST elevation.
3) Different types of STEMI are described based on the location of maximal ST elevation, including anterior, inferior, lateral, posterior, and right ventricular STEMI, each with characteristic ECG patterns.
This document discusses interventricular conduction delay and raised intracranial pressure as seen on electrocardiograms (ECGs). It defines interventricular conduction delay and lists various causes including fascicular blocks, bundle branch blocks, ventricular hypertrophy, dilatation, electrolyte abnormalities, toxins, pre-excitation, and arrhythmogenic cardiac conditions. It then discusses raised intracranial pressure and the associated ECG findings of widespread T-wave inversions, QT prolongation, and bradycardia as part of the Cushing reflex, indicating imminent brainstem herniation. Massive intracranial hemorrhages such as subarachnoid hemorrhage are the most common causes
The document discusses various electrolyte abnormalities and their ECG manifestations, including hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, hyperkalemia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesia, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and hypothermia. For each condition, it provides the normal and abnormal ranges for the electrolyte levels and describes the associated ECG changes such as peaked T waves, QT prolongation, low QRS voltage, bradycardia, and arrhythmias. The document serves as a reference for clinicians to recognize ECG patterns caused by electrolyte and endocrine abnormalities.
1) Fascicular ventricular tachycardia is the most common form of idiopathic ventricular tachycardia originating from the left ventricle. It typically presents in young patients without structural heart disease.
2) It has characteristic ECG features including a monomorphic ventricular rhythm with fusion complexes and AV dissociation. The QRS duration is between 100-140 ms with a short RS interval of 60-80 ms. It also shows a right bundle branch block pattern and axis deviation.
3) Posterior fascicular ventricular tachycardia, which arises near the left posterior fascicle, shows a right bundle branch block pattern with left axis deviation. Anterior fascicular ventricular tachycardia arises
The document discusses several electrocardiogram (ECG) findings and rhythms including ectopic atrial tachycardia, atrial tachycardia, electrical alternans seen in massive pericardial effusion which produces low QRS voltage, electrical alternans and tachycardia, escape rhythms like junctional escape rhythms where the pacemaker rate decreases down the conducting system, and ventricular escape rhythms. It also discusses the terminology of junctional rhythms and includes literature references.
The document discusses De Winter's T waves, which are characterized by three key findings on ECG: upsloping ST depression in precordial leads, tall symmetric T waves in precordial leads, and ST elevation in aVR. It also summarizes the ECG patterns seen in dextrocardia, including right axis deviation, positive complexes in aVR, and dominant S waves in precordial leads. Finally, it outlines the ECG features of digoxin effect and toxicity, such as biphasic T waves, shortened QT, and the dysrhythmia of supraventricular tachycardia with a slow ventricular response seen in digoxin toxicity.
Massive carbamazepine overdose of more than 50 mg/kg can cause cardiotoxicity due to sodium channel blockade, which may be detectable on ECG as subtle QRS widening or first-degree AV block. Dilated cardiomyopathy is characterized by ventricular dilatation and reduced ejection fraction below 40%, commonly presenting with symptoms of biventricular failure. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease can cause prominent P waves in inferior leads, exaggerated ST segments, low QRS voltage especially in V4-V6, and may show an SV1-SV2-SV3 pattern.
- Benign early repolarization shows concave ST elevation less than 2 mm with no progression over time, most prominent in V2-V5. Notching at the J-point and concordant T-waves are also seen.
- Beta-blocker and calcium channel blocker toxicity can cause prolonged PR interval and bradycardia. Propranolol toxicity specifically causes QRS widening and positive R' wave in aVR. Sotalol toxicity causes QT prolongation and risk of Torsades de Pointes.
- Bifascicular block is a combination of right bundle branch block with either left anterior or posterior fascicular block, and can be caused by ischemia, hypertension or other
This document discusses atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT). It states that AVNRT is the most common cause of palpitations in structurally normal hearts. It can occur spontaneously or be provoked. There are three main types - slow-fast AVNRT which is most common and shows no visible P waves, fast-slow AVNRT where P waves are visible after the QRS, and slow-slow AVNRT where P waves appear before the QRS. The tachycardia rate is typically between 140-280 beats per minute and is regular. AVNRT occurs due to a reentry circuit within the atrioventricular node.
This document summarizes different types of atrioventricular (AV) blocks seen on electrocardiograms (ECGs). It describes first-degree AV block as a PR interval over 200ms. Second-degree AV block, Mobitz type I (Wenckebach phenomenon) shows progressive PR prolongation until a blocked pulse. Mobitz type II shows intermittent non-conducted pulses without PR prolongation. High-grade second-degree AV block has a P:QRS ratio of 3:1 or higher, with an extremely slow ventricular rate. Third-degree or complete heart block shows no relationship between atrial and ventricular rates. Causes include myocardial infarction, drugs, and conduction system disease. Treatment ranges from
This document provides an overview of several cardiac arrhythmias and conditions including:
1. Accelerated idioventricular rhythm (AIVR), which results when an ectopic ventricular pacemaker exceeds the sinus node rate. AIVR is seen post-myocardial infarction and features a regular rhythm between 50-110 bpm with three or more QRS complexes.
2. Atrial flutter, a supraventricular tachycardia caused by a reentry circuit in the right atrium with a rate of around 300 bpm. The ventricular rate is determined by AV conduction.
3. Atrial fibrillation, the most common sustained arrhythmia characterized by irregularly irregular rhythm without
1) Cardiorenal syndrome commonly occurs in patients with acute decompensated heart failure and is associated with poor outcomes. It involves a complex interaction between hemodynamic alterations and activation of neurohormonal systems that affects both the heart and kidneys.
2) There are five types of cardiorenal syndrome classified based on the inciting cardiac or renal event and the affected secondary organs. Type 1 is acute cardiorenal syndrome due to acute worsening of cardiac function leading to kidney injury.
3) Loop diuretics are the mainstay of treatment for congestion in heart failure but aggressive diuresis may worsen kidney function. Other therapies discussed include inotropic agents, vasopressin antagonists
Categorization of risks and benefits (food additives)Domina Petric
The document discusses various categories of risks associated with food, including foodborne hazards of microbial origin, nutritional hazards, environmental contaminants, naturally occurring toxicants, and food additives. It notes that foodborne diseases of microbial origin pose the greatest risks. Nutritional hazards can arise from deficiencies or excesses. Environmental contaminants can enter the food supply from industrial or natural sources. Naturally occurring toxicants are found in some foods. Food additives present minimal risks when consumed within permitted levels. The document also outlines categories of potential benefits from foods, including health benefits, supply benefits, hedonic benefits, and convenience benefits.
This document discusses the benefits and risks of food additives. The benefits include making foods safer, more nutritious, and longer lasting through the use of preservatives and antioxidants. Additives also provide greater variety of foods and lower prices. However, there are also risks. There is a lack of data on the long term health effects of combinations of additives. Some additives are associated with "junk foods" that are low in nutrients. While direct toxic effects are unlikely at legal levels, some individuals may have hypersensitivity reactions. Some animal studies also indicate potential cancer and reproductive issues, but no direct evidence in humans. The risks must be weighed against the benefits on a case by case basis.
The document discusses different types of food additives and how they are classified. It describes preservatives like antimicrobials, antioxidants and antibrowning agents. Nutritional additives add vitamins, minerals and fiber. Coloring agents and flavors are used to enhance appearance and taste. Texturizing agents modify texture and mouthfeel. Additives are identified by International Numbering System codes or E numbers from the European Union.
Effector phase in immune mediated drug hypersensitivityDomina Petric
This document discusses antibody-mediated and T cell-mediated drug hypersensitivity. It describes how drugs can act as haptens and stimulate T and B cell responses, leading to IgE production and immediate hypersensitivity reactions. It also discusses the p-i concept where drugs can directly interact with T cell receptors and cause reactions without prior sensitization, particularly in the skin which contains many resident immune cells.
1. Small molecule drugs can become immunogenic by undergoing bioactivation into chemically reactive metabolites that covalently bind to proteins, forming hapten-carrier complexes.
2. These complexes are then processed and presented by antigen presenting cells to T cells, stimulating an adaptive immune response.
3. Whether a humoral or cellular immune response develops depends on which proteins are modified by the hapten and whether they are soluble or cell-bound.
2. Prijelomi natkoljenice i potkoljenice kod kojih
se prijelomna pukotina proteže na zglobno tijelo
distalnog femura i proksimalnu tibiju.
Subhondralni prijelomi samo manjeg dijela
zglobne površine s hrskavicom su poseban oblik
prijeloma.
Unutarzglobni prijelomi femura spadaju u grupu
suprakondilarnih te intrakondilarnih prijeloma.
B1-3 su djelomično unutarzglobni prijelomi
kondila femura.
C1-2 su unutarzglobni prijelomi.
C3 su višeiverni prijelomi.
3. Klinička slika: ispad funkcije koljena, otok, bol,
nemogućnost oslanjanja na nogu
RTG i CT
Ako je pomak ulomaka manji od 1 mm, dozvoljeno je
konzervativno liječenje.
imobilizacija 2 susjedna zgloba ili ortoza za koljeno s
pobočnim metalnim polugama i s ograničenom
regulacijom fleksije
MIK: perkutano fiksiranje ulomaka pomoću
kanuliranih vijaka.
Subhondralni prijelomi: osteosinteza vijkom,
artroskopskom tehnikom (MI artroskopski potpomognuta
osteosinteza)
kinetek aparat za razgibavanje koljena (2. dan nakon
operacije)
MIK: minimalno invazivna kirurgija
4. Ako se radi o većem pomaku ulomaka, potrebna je
otvorena repozicija i unutarnja fiksacija vijcima i/ili
pločicama.
spongiozni pritezni vijak, kondilarna kutna ploča od
95°, dinamička kondilarna ploča, distalni ukotvljeni
čavao...
Privremena ekstenzija kroz tuberositas tibije se
koristi kad se operacija ne može učiniti.
Tehnika minimalne osteosinteze u kombinaciji s
vanjskim fiksatorom se koristi kod otvorenih
prijeloma.
Noga se tjelesnom težinom može opteretiti za 10 do
12 tjedana.
Kasne komplikacije su djelomično ograničenje kretnji
u koljenu, posttraumatska artroza i poremećaj
statike.
5. Prijelomi gornjeg segmenta tibije.
Istodobno postoji ozljeda ligamenata koljena i
ruptura meniskusa.
Najčešći su impresijski prijelomi.
B1-3 su djelomično unutarzglobni prijelomi.
C1-3 su zglobni prijelomi.
Bol je izrazitija nad kondilima tibije.
Ozljede krvnih žila mogu nastati kod
unutarzglobnih prijeloma femura i tibije
(češće) kada prijelom karakterizira veći pomak
ulomaka.
Neurocirkulacijski status je potrebno
provjeravati redovito!!!
6. Konzervativno se mogu liječiti prijelomi s
minimalnim pomakom ulomaka (do 2 mm),
impresijski prijelomi platoa tibije (2 do 3 mm) i
prijelomi kod kojih je koljeno stabilno.
sadrena imobilizacija, ortoza koljena 6 do 8
tjedana
Sve ostale ozljede se liječe kirurški.
osteosinteza kondila, ispitivanje kolateralnog
ligamenta na suprotnoj strani (ruptura je
prisutna u 1/3 prijeloma)
rehabilitacija
Komplikacije su razvoj infekcije, smanjenje opsega
kretnji koljenskog zgloba i rani razvoj
posttraumatske artroze.
7. rekonstrukcija cjelovitosti zgloba
ispraviti prijelomom izmijenjene osovine
tibije, koljena i femura
rekonstrukcija ozljeda ligamenata, meniska
i zglobne čahure
stabilna osteosinteza priteznim vijcima,
potpornim pločama za plato tibije
autologna spongioplastika kod nedostatka
koštane mase
rano započinjanje s poslijeoperacijskom
fizikalnom terapijom i kineziterapijom
8. akutne i kronične
istegnuća, djelomična i potpuna ruptura
Mjesta pucanja: proksimalno i distalno
hvatište za kost, između dva hvatišta.
9. Izolirane ozljede ili u kombinaciji s
ozljedama ukriženih ligamenata i/ili
meniskusa.
Mehanizam ozljede: prekomjerna
abdukcija ili rotacija prema van, flektirane
potkoljenice opterećene tjelesnom
težinom.
Djelomične ozljede nastaju na njihovom
femoralnom hvatištu (ozljede pri skijanju).
Potpune rupture nastaju s istodobnim
oštećenjima ukriženih ligamenata i meniska.
10. Klinčki pregled je bolan.
Palpatorni nalaz rupe u ligamentu i zglobnoj
čahuri!
Otvaranje medijalnog dijela zgloba pri testu pasivne
abdukcije potkoljenice je znak žabljih usta.
Uz ozljedu se javljaju krvarenje unutar zgloba
(hemartros) i hematom.
RTG, UZV i MRI koljena
Distenzija se liječi mirovanjem, analgeticima i
fizikalnom terapijom.
Za djelomičnu rupturu, potrebna je imobilizacija
ortozom za koljeno tijekom 4 do 6 tjedana.
Ako postoji i ozljeda drugih struktura, indicirana je
operacija.
11. Morbus Stieda-Pellegrini:
kalcifikacija i okoštavanje koljenskog
zgloba u području hvatišta medijalnog
ligamenta na aduktorni kondil femura
Akutna faza bolesti: mjesec dana poslije
ozljede.
Bolovi prestaju nakon 2 do 3 mjeseca.
12. Znatno rjeđe!
Puca na distalnom dijelu hvatišta na fibuli.
Odlomi se koštani dio.
Može doći i do ozljede n. peroneus communis.
Liječenje:
operacijska fiksacija ligamenta,
poslijeoperacijska imobilizacija i uporaba
štaka tijekom 8 tjedana
fizikalna terapija
13. Prednji križni je češće ozlijeđen.
Obično uz tu ozljedu postoji i ozljeda
medijalnog kolateralnog ligamenta i medijalnog
meniska (trojna ozljeda).
Ozljeda nastaje hiperekstenzijom koljena ili kod
flektiranog koljena pomakom femura prema
straga, a potkoljenica je fiksirana za podlogu.
Vrste ozljede:
otrgnuće ukriženog ligamenta zajedno s
interkondilarnom izbočinom tibije
otrgnuće na femoralnom hvatištu
otrgnuće oba hvatišta uz očuvanje kontinuiteta
ukriženog ligamenta
14. Klinička slika: pogoršana funkcija koljena, bol i
izljev krvi u zglob.
Zbog lokalnog spazma mišića, znak prednje ladice i
Lachmannov test se obično u ranoj fazi ozljede ne
mogu izvesti.
patološka gibljivost tibije ispod femura u sagitalnom
smjeru; MRI, eksplorativna artroskopija
Za bolesnike mlađe od 40 godina i za sportaše se
preporučuje operacijsko liječenje.
Konzervativno liječenje: mirovanje, kineziterapija za
kvadriceps i fleksore koljena.
Operacijsko liječenje: otvorena metoda, artroskopija
Rupturirani ligament se rekonstruira tetivom m.
semitendinosus i m. gracilis ili dijelom ligamenta
patele.
15. Mehanizam ozljede: kod flektiranog koljena
zbog pomaka kondila tibije prema kondilima
femura u smjeru prema straga.
Najčešće mjesto ozljede je hvatište ligamenta
na tibiji.
Češće uz ozljedu s razdorom stražnje zglobne
čahure.
Znak stražnje ladice je pozitivan (u kasnijoj
fazi).
Preporučuje se izvođenje kirurškog zahvata i
rekonstrukcija stražnjeg ukriženog ligamenta te
stražnje čahure zgloba.
Propisano je nošenje ortoze za koljeno.
16. Mlađi bolesnici!
Medijalni meniskus se ozlijedi 4 puta
češće.
Mehanizam ozljede: potkoljenica ne prati
nagli pokret natkoljenice i trupa.
Uzdužni razdor je najčešća ozljeda
meniskusa.
Postoji blokada koljena.
Ostale vrste ozljeda meniskusa:
bucket handle ruptura (dvostruki meniskus)
horizontalni i poprečni razdor
Hidrops, bol i blokada je klasični trijas
simptoma!
17. Steinmann I je pojava boli u medijalnoj ili
lateralnoj zglobnoj pukotini pri fleksiji i
rotaciji potkoljenice prema unutra ili prema
van.
Steinmann II je pojava boli u zglobnoj
pukotini koja se javlja pri fleksiji koljena pri
čemu bol ˝putuje˝ od sprijeda prema straga.
Apleyjev test: bolesnik leži potrbuške, izvodi
se distrakcija (bol nastaje ako je ozlijeđena
zglobna čahura) i kompresija potkoljenice
prema natkoljenici (bol nastaje ako je
ozlijeđen menisk).
18. Poštedna meniscektomija je djelomična
artroskopska meniscektomija.
Rijetko se radi potpuna meniscektomija.
Artroskopski šav meniskusa se koristi kad je
kod moguće.
Fizikalna terapija!
19. Čimbenici nestabilnost koljena su ozljede
ligamenata, meniska i zglobne čahure.
Veća nestabilnost je posljedica
intraartikularnih prijeloma s pomakom
ulomaka i loše sraslih prijeloma.
Ozljede mekih tkiva nastaju istodobno s
ozljedama drugih struktura koljena.
Nestabilnost koljena se utvrđuje u
sagitalnoj, frontalnoj i horizontalnoj
ravnini.
20. Nestabilnost u sagitalnoj ravnini: lezija
ukriženih ligamenata.
Nestabilnost u frontalnoj ravnini: valgus
i varus stres, ozljeda kolateralnih
ligamenata.
Nestabilnost u horizontalnoj ravnini:
rotatorna nestabilnost, a može biti AL,
AM, PL i PM, posljedica je većeg broja
ozljeda stabilizatora koljena.
AL: anterolateralna, AM: anteromedijalna, PL: posterolateralna...
21. Ruptura medijalnog kolateralnog ligamenta,
potpuna ruptura prednjeg ukriženog
ligamenta i ruptura medijalnog
meniska!
Često postoji i ozljeda stražnje
zglobne čahure.
Koljeno je savijeno i ne može
se ispružiti (zaštitni položaj).
Postoje hemartros i hematom.
22. Znak žabljih usta je patognomoničan.
MRI!
Operacijsko liječenje: rekonstrukcija
ukriženog ligamenta, šivanje meniska
(ili poštedna meniscektomija) i
rekonstrukcija kolateralnog
ligamenta.
Imobilizacija traje 6 do 8 tjedana.
Rehabilitacija!
23. Patela je dio ekstenzornog sustava koljena.
Nemogućnost ispružanja koljena je pri
kretanju razlog velike nesigurnosti.
U ozljede ekstenzornog sustava koljena
spadaju ruptura m. rectus femoris, ruptura
i otrgnuće tetive kvadricepsa s patele,
prijelom patele, otrgnuće ligamenta patele
od donjeg pola patele, ruptura ligamenta
patele i otrgnuće ligamenta patele na
hvatištu za tibiju.
Neizravna sila uzrokuje višeiverne prijelome,
a izravna sila poprečne prijelome.
24. Klinička slika: ispad funkcije koljenskog zgloba,
nemogućnost hoda, otok i bol.
RTG snimke!
Liječenje imobilizacijom od 6 do 8 tjedana je
dopušteno ako nema pomaka ulomaka.
Kirurški se izvodi osteosinteza, serklažnom i s 2
Kirschnerove žice kao obuhvatnim ligamentom ili
pomoću vijaka i košaraste pločice po Smiljaniću.
Kad nije moguća rekonstrukcija kod višeivernih
prijeloma, radi se djelomična ili potpuna
patelektomija.
Obično se poslije 4 do 8 tjedana, nakon operacije,
započinje s opterećenjem noge tjelesnom težinom.
Komplikacije su artroza femoropatelarnog zgloba te
značajan gubitak snage mišića.
25. Habitualno i traumatsko iščašenje.
Habitualno nastaje zbog anomalije u građi
koljena.
Traumatsko nastaje djelovanjem postranične
sile na patelu.
Iščašenje patele može biti u stranu, medijalno,
oko uzdužne osovine, potpuno i nepotpuno.
Liječenje je repozicija bez opće anestezije.
Ako se radi o istodobnoj ozljedi ligamenata i
čahure koljena, repozicija se izvodi u općoj
anesteziji, otvorenim kirurškim pristupom.
Imobilizacija traje 4 do 6 tjedana.
26. Vrlo je rijetko.
Vrlo jaka intenzivna sila mora djelovati na natkoljenicu kad je
potkoljenica učvršćena za tvrdu podlogu ili obratno.
Obično je ozlijeđen i neurovaskularni snop.
komplicirano iščašenje, iščašenje tibije prema naprijed, prema
straga, prema medijalno i u stranu...
rotacija potkoljenice
djelomična i potpuna iščašenja
RTG i MRI koljena, arteriografija!
Repoziciju valja učiniti što prije
(opća anestezija)!
Rekonstrukcija ozljede ligamenata i
zglobne čahure!
Nakon 6 do 8 tjedana imobilizacije čvrstim
sredstvom, stavlja se koljenska ortoza s
ograničenom mogućnošću fleksije.
27. uzastopne mikrotraume
opetovane ozljede kod kojih je reparacija
nemoguća
Klinička slika: bol ograničena na dio koljena ili se
širi na cijelo koljeno, ispad funkcije koljena.
Sinonimi su miotendinitis, tendinitis,
peritendinitis, entezitis.
skakačko koljeno, hondromalacija patele,
prijelom zamora patele...
Artroskopska apikotomija se vrši samo kad je bol
refraktorna na konzervativne mjere liječenja.