The document discusses Rust's ownership system and borrowing. It explains that variables own the memory for their values, and when a variable goes out of scope that memory is returned. References allow borrowing values without transferring ownership. References must live shorter than the values they reference. Mutable references also allow changing borrowed values, but there can only be one mutable reference at a time.

1. 郭⾄至軒 [:kuoe0]
Mozilla
kuoe0.tw@gmail.com
Ownership
System in Rust
2016/07/12 @摩茲⼯工寮

2. 4.8 Ownership[link]

3. Variable & Memory
A variable name is only a name.
It’s possible that a variable name can not access any
memory.
When a variable is declared, Rust allocates memory in
stack and heap (if need) for it.
When the owner of resources is destroyed, ALL
resources it owned would be released.

4. Variable & Memory
Stack
Heap
fn main() {
let v = vec![1, 2, 3];
}
dynamic memory
static memory

5. Variable & Memory
Stack
Heap
fn main() {
let v = vec![1, 2, 3];
}
dynamic memory
static memory
When the variable is destroyed…

6. fn main() {
let v = vec![1, 2, 3];
}
Variable & Memory
Stack
Heap
dynamic memory
static memory
All related resources will be destroyed, too!

7. Move By Default
Assignment operator is move semantics by default.
There is exactly one variable binding to any resource.
Avoid data racing to guarantee data consistency.

8. Move By Default
struct Point {
x: i32,
y: i32
}
fn main() {
let v1 = Point{ x: 10, y:
20};
let v2 = v1;
println!("{}", v1.x);
}
error: use of moved value: `v1.x` [--explain
E0382]
--> <anon>:9:20
8 |> let v2 = v1;
|> -- value moved here
9 |> println!("{}", v1.x);
|> ^^^^ value used here
after move
<std macros>:2:27: 2:58: note: in this
expansion of format_args!
<std macros>:3:1: 3:54: note: in this
expansion of print! (defined in <std macros>)
<anon>:9:5: 9:26: note: in this expansion of
println! (defined in <std macros>)
note: move occurs because `v1` has type
`Point`, which does not implement the `Copy`
trait
error: aborting due to previous error
compile

9. Move By Default
struct Point {
x: i32,
y: i32
}
fn main() {
let v1 = Point{ x: 10, y:
20};
let v2 = v1;
println!("{}", v1.x);
}
error: use of moved value: `v1.x` [--explain
E0382]
--> <anon>:9:20
8 |> let v2 = v1;
|> -- value moved here
9 |> println!("{}", v1.x);
|> ^^^^ value used here
after move
<std macros>:2:27: 2:58: note: in this
expansion of format_args!
<std macros>:3:1: 3:54: note: in this
expansion of print! (defined in <std macros>)
<anon>:9:5: 9:26: note: in this expansion of
println! (defined in <std macros>)
note: move occurs because `v1` has type
`Point`, which does not implement the `Copy`
trait
error: aborting due to previous error
compile
Use of moved value!
v1.x

10. Move By Default
stack
struct Point {
x: i32,
y: i32
}
fn main() {
let v1 = Point{ x: 10, y:
20};
let v2 = v1;
println!("{}", v1.x);
}
Point { x = 10, y = 20 }
names
v1

11. Move By Default
stack
struct Point {
x: i32,
y: i32
}
fn main() {
let v1 = Point{ x: 10, y:
20};
let v2 = v1;
println!("{}", v1.x);
}
Point { x = 10, y = 20 }
names
v1
v2

12. Copyable Type
The types which implement Copy trait can make
assignment operator be copy semantics.
Allow to use the variable which be copied.
All primitive types implement the Copy trait.

13. Copyable Type
fn main() {
let v1 = 10;
let v2 = v1;
println!("v1 = {}", v1);
println!("v2 = {}", v2);
}
v1 = 10
v2 = 10
Program ended.
run

14. Copyable Type
fn main() {
let v1 = 10;
let v2 = v1;
println!("v1 = {}", v1);
println!("v2 = {}", v2);
}
stacknames
v1 i32 { 10 }

15. Copyable Type
fn main() {
let v1 = 10;
let v2 = v1;
println!("v1 = {}", v1);
println!("v2 = {}", v2);
}
stacknames
v1 i32 { 10 }
v2 i32 { 10 }

16. Parameter Passing
Passing parameters is also move semantics by default
(no Copy trait).
Developers should return the ownership of parameters
by themselves.
Yes, you should return ten variables back if you pass
ten parameters into a function. 😜

17. Parameter Passing
struct Pt { x: i32, y: i32 }
fn dist(v: Pt) -> Pt {
println!("{}", v.x * v.x + v.y *
v.y);
v
}
fn main() {
let v = Pt{ x: 3, y: 4 };
let v = dist(v);
println!("{} {}", v.x, v.y);
}
struct Pt { x: i32, y: i32 }
fn dot(v1: Pt, v2: Pt) -> (Pt, Pt) {
println!("{}", v1.x * v2.x +
v1.y * v2.y);
(v1, v2)
}
fn main() {
let v1 = Pt{ x: 3, y: 4 };
let v2 = Pt{ x: 1, y: 2 };
let (v1, v2) = dot(v1, v2);
println!("{} {}", v1.x, v1.y);
println!("{} {}", v2.x, v2.y);
}
one parameter two parameters

18. Parameter Passing
struct Pt { x: i32 }
fn square(v: Pt) {
println!("{}", v.x * v.x);
}
fn main() {
let v = Pt{ x: 3 };
square(v);
println!("{}", v.x);
}
error: use of moved value: `v.x` [--explain
E0382]
--> <anon>:10:20
9 |> square(v);
|> - value moved here
10 |> println!("{}", v.x);
|> ^^^ value used here
after move
<std macros>:2:27: 2:58: note: in this
expansion of format_args!
<std macros>:3:1: 3:54: note: in this
expansion of print! (defined in <std macros>)
<anon>:10:5: 10:25: note: in this expansion
of println! (defined in <std macros>)
note: move occurs because `v` has type `Pt`,
which does not implement the `Copy` trait
error: aborting due to previous error
compile

19. Parameter Passing
struct Pt { x: i32 }
fn square(v: Pt) {
println!("{}", v.x * v.x);
}
fn main() {
let v = Pt{ x: 3 };
square(v);
println!("{}", v.x);
}
error: use of moved value: `v.x` [--explain
E0382]
--> <anon>:10:20
9 |> square(v);
|> - value moved here
10 |> println!("{}", v.x);
|> ^^^ value used here
after move
<std macros>:2:27: 2:58: note: in this
expansion of format_args!
<std macros>:3:1: 3:54: note: in this
expansion of print! (defined in <std macros>)
<anon>:10:5: 10:25: note: in this expansion
of println! (defined in <std macros>)
note: move occurs because `v` has type `Pt`,
which does not implement the `Copy` trait
error: aborting due to previous error
compile
v.x
Use of moved value!

20. 4.9 Reference and Borrowing[link]

21. Syntax of Reference
fn main() {
let a = 1;
let b = &a; // &a is the reference to a
let mut c = 2;
let d = &mut c; // &mut c is the mutable
reference to c
}

22. Borrowing
Use the references to borrow the ownership.
The ownership will return to original owner when the
borrower is destroyed automatically.
References are immutable.
Allow multiple references to one variable.
A borrowed variable can be read but not written.
Only allow to borrow the variable with longer lifetime.

23. Borrowing
fn main() {
let orig = 0;
let b1 = &orig;
let b2 = &orig;
let b3 = &orig;
println!("b1 = {}", b1);
println!("b2 = {}", b2);
println!("b3 = {}", b3);
println!("orig = {}", orig);
}
b1 = 0
b2 = 0
b3 = 0
orig = 0
Program ended.
run

24. Borrowing
fn main() {
let mut x = 0;
{
let y = &x;
x += 1;
println!("{}", y);
}
println!("{}", x);
}
error: cannot assign to `x` because it is
borrowed [--explain E0506]
--> <anon>:5:9
4 |> let y = &x;
|> - borrow of `x` occurs
here
5 |> x += 1;
|> ^^^^^^ assignment to borrowed
`x` occurs here
error: aborting due to previous error
compile

25. Borrowing
fn main() {
let mut x = 0;
{
let y = &x;
x += 1;
println!("{}", y);
}
println!("{}", x);
}
error: cannot assign to `x` because it is
borrowed [--explain E0506]
--> <anon>:5:9
4 |> let y = &x;
|> - borrow of `x` occurs
here
5 |> x += 1;
|> ^^^^^^ assignment to borrowed
`x` occurs here
error: aborting due to previous error
compile
x += 1;
Cannot write the borrowed variable!

26. Borrowing
fn main() {
let y: &i32;
{
let x = 5;
y = &x;
}
println!("{}", y);
}
error: `x` does not live long enough
--> <anon>:5:14
5 |> y = &x;
|> ^
note: reference must be valid for the block
suffix following statement 0 at 2:16...
--> <anon>:2:17
2 |> let y: &i32;
|> ^
note: ...but borrowed value is only valid for
the block suffix following statement 0 at
4:18
--> <anon>:4:19
4 |> let x = 5;
|> ^
error: aborting due to previous error
compile

27. Borrowing
fn main() {
let y: &i32;
{
let x = 5;
y = &x;
}
println!("{}", y);
}
error: `x` does not live long enough
--> <anon>:5:14
5 |> y = &x;
|> ^
note: reference must be valid for the block
suffix following statement 0 at 2:16...
--> <anon>:2:17
2 |> let y: &i32;
|> ^
note: ...but borrowed value is only valid for
the block suffix following statement 0 at
4:18
--> <anon>:4:19
4 |> let x = 5;
|> ^
error: aborting due to previous error
compile
y = &x;
Lifetime of x is shorter than y.

28. Borrowing
fn main() {
let y: &i32;
let x = 5;
y = &x;
println!("{}", y);
}
error: `x` does not live long enough
--> <anon>:4:10
4 |> y = &x;
|> ^
note: reference must be valid for the block
suffix following statement 0 at 2:16...
--> <anon>:2:17
2 |> let y: &i32;
|> ^
note: ...but borrowed value is only valid for
the block suffix following statement 1 at
3:14
--> <anon>:3:15
3 |> let x = 5;
|> ^
error: aborting due to previous error
compile

29. Borrowing
fn main() {
let y: &i32;
let x = 5;
y = &x;
println!("{}", y);
}
error: `x` does not live long enough
--> <anon>:4:10
4 |> y = &x;
|> ^
note: reference must be valid for the block
suffix following statement 0 at 2:16...
--> <anon>:2:17
2 |> let y: &i32;
|> ^
note: ...but borrowed value is only valid for
the block suffix following statement 1 at
3:14
--> <anon>:3:15
3 |> let x = 5;
|> ^
error: aborting due to previous error
compile
y = &x;
Lifetime of x is shorter than y.

30. Borrowing
struct Pt { x: i32, y: i32 }
fn dot(v1: Pt, v2: Pt) -> (Pt, Pt) {
println!("{}", v1.x * v2.x +
v1.y * v2.y);
(v1, v2)
}
fn main() {
let v1 = Pt{ x: 3, y: 4 };
let v2 = Pt{ x: 1, y: 2 };
let (v1, v2) = dot(v1, v2);
println!("{} {}", v1.x, v1.y);
println!("{} {}", v2.x, v2.y);
}
struct Pt { x: i32, y: i32 }
fn dot(v1: &Pt, v2: &Pt) {
println!("{}", v1.x * v2.x +
v1.y * v2.y);
}
fn main() {
let v1 = Pt{ x: 3, y: 4 };
let v2 = Pt{ x: 1, y: 2 };
dot(&v1, &v2);
println!("{} {}", v1.x, v1.y);
println!("{} {}", v2.x, v2.y);
}

31. Borrowing
struct Pt { x: i32, y: i32 }
fn dot(v1: Pt, v2: Pt) -> (Pt, Pt) {
println!("{}", v1.x * v2.x +
v1.y * v2.y);
(v1, v2)
}
fn main() {
let v1 = Pt{ x: 3, y: 4 };
let v2 = Pt{ x: 1, y: 2 };
let (v1, v2) = dot(v1, v2);
println!("{} {}", v1.x, v1.y);
println!("{} {}", v2.x, v2.y);
}
struct Pt { x: i32, y: i32 }
fn dot(v1: &Pt, v2: &Pt) {
println!("{}", v1.x * v2.x +
v1.y * v2.y);
}
fn main() {
let v1 = Pt{ x: 3, y: 4 };
let v2 = Pt{ x: 1, y: 2 };
dot(&v1, &v2);
println!("{} {}", v1.x, v1.y);
println!("{} {}", v2.x, v2.y);
}

32. Mutable Borrowing
Use mutable references only if you need to change the values
you borrowed.
Only allow to borrow a mutable variables as a mutable
reference.
There is exactly one mutable reference to a variable.
A variable borrowed as a mutable reference can not be
borrowed as immutable references.
A variable borrowed as a mutable reference can not be used
until the end of borrowing.

33. Mutable Borrowing
fn main() {
let mut x = 0;
{
let y = &mut x;
*y += 1;
}
println!("x = {}", x);
}
x = 1
Program ended.
run

34. Mutable Borrowing
fn main() {
let mut x = 0;
{
let y = &mut x;
let z = &mut x;
*y += 1;
}
println!("x = {}", x);
}
error: cannot borrow `x` as mutable more than
once at a time [--explain E0499]
--> <anon>:5:22
4 |> let y = &mut x;
|> - first mutable
borrow occurs here
5 |> let z = &mut x;
|> ^ second mutable
borrow occurs here
6 |> *y += 1;
7 |> }
|> - first borrow ends here
error: aborting due to previous error
compile

35. Mutable Borrowing
fn main() {
let mut x = 0;
{
let y = &mut x;
let z = &mut x;
*y += 1;
}
println!("x = {}", x);
}
error: cannot borrow `x` as mutable more than
once at a time [--explain E0499]
--> <anon>:5:22
4 |> let y = &mut x;
|> - first mutable
borrow occurs here
5 |> let z = &mut x;
|> ^ second mutable
borrow occurs here
6 |> *y += 1;
7 |> }
|> - first borrow ends here
error: aborting due to previous error
compile
let z = &mut x;
Cannot borrow x as mutable reference more than once!

36. Mutable Borrowing
fn main() {
let mut x = 0;
{
let y = &mut x;
let z = &x;
*y += 1;
}
println!("x = {}", x);
}
error: cannot borrow `x` as immutable because
it is also borrowed as mutable [--explain
E0502]
--> <anon>:6:18
4 |> let y = &mut x;
|> - mutable borrow
occurs here
5 |> *y += 1;
6 |> let z = &x;
|> ^ immutable borrow
occurs here
7 |> }
|> - mutable borrow ends here
error: aborting due to previous error
compile

37. Mutable Borrowing
fn main() {
let mut x = 0;
{
let y = &mut x;
let z = &x;
*y += 1;
}
println!("x = {}", x);
}
error: cannot borrow `x` as immutable because
it is also borrowed as mutable [--explain
E0502]
--> <anon>:6:18
4 |> let y = &mut x;
|> - mutable borrow
occurs here
5 |> *y += 1;
6 |> let z = &x;
|> ^ immutable borrow
occurs here
7 |> }
|> - mutable borrow ends here
error: aborting due to previous error
compile
let z = &x;
Cannot borrow the variable been borrowed as a mutable reference!

38. Mutable Borrowing
fn main() {
let mut x = 0;
{
let y = &mut x;
let z = x + 1;
}
println!("x = {}", x);
}
error: cannot use `x` because it was mutably
borrowed [E0503]
--> <anon>:5:17
5 |> let z = x + 1;
|> ^
note: borrow of `x` occurs here
--> <anon>:4:22
4 |> let y = &mut x;
|> ^
error: aborting due to previous error
compile

39. Mutable Borrowing
fn main() {
let mut x = 0;
{
let y = &mut x;
let z = x + 1;
}
println!("x = {}", x);
}
error: cannot use `x` because it was mutably
borrowed [E0503]
--> <anon>:5:17
5 |> let z = x + 1;
|> ^
note: borrow of `x` occurs here
--> <anon>:4:22
4 |> let y = &mut x;
|> ^
error: aborting due to previous error
compile
let z = x + 1;
Cannot access the variable been borrowed as a mutable reference.

40. Thinking in Scopes
fn main() {
let mut x = 0;
let y = &mut x;
*y += 1;
println!("x = {}", x);
}
Why compile error?

41. Thinking in Scopes(cont’)
fn main() {
let mut x = 0;
let y = &mut x;
*y += 1;
println!("x = {}", x);
}
error: cannot borrow `x` as immutable because
it is also borrowed as mutable [--explain
E0502]
--> <anon>:5:24
3 |> let y = &mut x;
|> - mutable borrow occurs
here
4 |> *y += 1;
5 |> println!("x = {}", x);
|> ^ immutable
borrow occurs here
6 |> }
|> - mutable borrow ends here
<std macros>:2:27: 2:58: note: in this
expansion of format_args!
<std macros>:3:1: 3:54: note: in this
expansion of print! (defined in <std macros>)
<anon>:5:5: 5:27: note: in this expansion of
println! (defined in <std macros>)
error: aborting due to previous error
compile

42. Thinking in Scopes(cont’)
fn main() {
let mut x = 0;
let y = &mut x;
*y += 1;
println!("x = {}", x);
}
error: cannot borrow `x` as immutable because
it is also borrowed as mutable [--explain
E0502]
--> <anon>:5:24
3 |> let y = &mut x;
|> - mutable borrow occurs
here
4 |> *y += 1;
5 |> println!("x = {}", x);
|> ^ immutable
borrow occurs here
6 |> }
|> - mutable borrow ends here
<std macros>:2:27: 2:58: note: in this
expansion of format_args!
<std macros>:3:1: 3:54: note: in this
expansion of print! (defined in <std macros>)
<anon>:5:5: 5:27: note: in this expansion of
println! (defined in <std macros>)
error: aborting due to previous error
compile
println!("x = {}", x);
Immutable borrow occurs here!

43. Iterator Invalidation
fn main() {
let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3];
for i in &v {
println!("{}", i);
v.push(34);
}
}
error: cannot borrow `v` as mutable because
it is also borrowed as immutable [--explain
E0502]
--> <anon>:6:9
4 |> for i in &v {
|> - immutable borrow occurs
here
5 |> println!("{}", i);
6 |> v.push(34);
|> ^ mutable borrow occurs here
7 |> }
|> - immutable borrow ends here
error: aborting due to previous error
compile

44. Iterator Invalidation
fn main() {
let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3];
for i in &v {
println!("{}", i);
v.push(34);
}
}
error: cannot borrow `v` as mutable because
it is also borrowed as immutable [--explain
E0502]
--> <anon>:6:9
4 |> for i in &v {
|> - immutable borrow occurs
here
5 |> println!("{}", i);
6 |> v.push(34);
|> ^ mutable borrow occurs here
7 |> }
|> - immutable borrow ends here
error: aborting due to previous error
compile
v.push(34);
push(&mut self, …) try to borrow v as a mutable reference!

45. 4.10 Lifetimes[link]

46. Syntax of Lifetimes Specifier
fn fn2<'a>(x: &'a i32) -> &'a i32 {
// do something
}

47. Syntax of Lifetimes Specifier
fn fn2<'a>(x: &'a i32) -> &'a i32 {
// do something
}
'a 'a 'a
input lifetime output lifetime

48. Syntax of Lifetimes Specifier
// lifetime with mutable reference
fn foo<'a>(x: &'a mut i32) -> &'a mut i32 {
// do something
}
// lifetime in struct
struct Foo<'a> {
x: &'a i32
}
// lifetime with impl
impl<'a> Foo<'a> {
fn x(&self) -> &'a i32 { self.x }
}

49. Lifetimes Specifier
All references need lifetimes.
Explicit lifetimes are used to make lifetime inference
unambiguous.
Must give explicit lifetimes for struct contain reference
members.
No need to give explicit lifetimes to the functions
without references return.

50. Lifetimes Specifier
struct Foo<'a> {
x: &'a i32
}
impl<'a> Foo<'a> {
fn x(&self) -> &'a i32 { self.x }
}
fn main() {
let y = 5;
let f = Foo { x: &y };
println!("{}", f.x);
println!("{}", f.x());
}
5
5
Program ended.
run

51. Lifetime Inference
Each elided lifetime of arguments becomes a distinct
lifetime parameter.
If there is exactly one input lifetime, all elided lifetimes
of the return values will be as same as the input
lifetime.
If there is &self in input lifetimes, all elided lifetimes of
the return values will be as same as &self.

52. Lifetime Inference (valid)
fn print(s: &str); // elided
fn print<'a>(s: &'a str); // expanded
//////////
fn substr(s: &str, until: u32) -> &str; // elided
fn substr<'a>(s: &'a str, until: u32) -> &'a str; // expanded
//////////
fn get_mut(&mut self) -> &mut T; // elided
fn get_mut<'a>(&'a mut self) -> &'a mut T; // expanded

53. Lifetime Inference (invalid)
fn get_str() -> &str; // ILLEGAL, no inputs
//////////
fn frob(s: &str, t: &str) -> &str; // Two input
lifetimes
fn frob<'a, 'b>(s: &'a str, t: &'b str) -> &str; // Output
lifetime is ambiguous

54. Static Lifetime
Some resources have the lifetime of the entire
program.
No need to give explicit lifetime for functions return
static resources.

55. Lifetimes Specifier
static FIVE: i32 = 5;
fn get_five() -> &'static i32 {
&FIVE
}
fn main() {
let x = get_five();
println!("x = {}", x);
}
x = 5
Program ended.
run

56. Thanks!
CC-BY-SA