Mesopotamian civilizations were among the earliest human civilizations that emerged between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in the region known as Mesopotamia. Several independent city-states dominated Mesopotamia at different periods, including the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. The Mesopotamians developed cuneiform writing using wedge-shaped marks and invented early mathematical concepts like the base-60 number system. They practiced a polytheistic religion and had social hierarchies with the king and priests holding power.

1. Overview of the Mesopotamian Civilization
HS 326 Harappan Civilization
Sachin Yadav
18110148
Introduction
Mesopotamian Civilizations were one of the earliest human civilizations. The word “Mesopotamia” is derived from two
Greek words “Mesos” (middle) and “Potamas” (rivers); hence the name refers to the land in between the two rivers
(river Tigris and Euphrates). Rather than a unified valley state, Mesopotamian Civilizations refers to the independent
city- states in the region. Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonian and Assyrians dominated Mesopotamia in different periods.
“Mesos”
(middle)
“Potamos”
(river)
“Mesopotamia”
(land) between rivers
Geography
Mesopotamia encompasses the land between Euphrates and
Tigris river system. Both rivers originate in the Tauras mountains
and empty into the Persian Gulf. In case of Natural resources, the
region lacks building stones, metals, precious metals and timber
which were obtained by Mesopotamian civilizations via an
extensive trade route in exchange of grains.
Language and Writing
Sumerian Language was the earliest form of language written in Mesopotamia. Cuneiform, a form of writing with wedge-
shaped marks, was developed for the Sumerian language. Early Mesopotamian also spoke a few Afro-Asiatic Languages.
Akkadian became the language of masses during the Akkadian and Assyrian empires, while Sumerian was still used for
administrative and religious purposes. The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the most well-known works of literature in
Sumerian language describing the heroic deeds of Gilgamesh, king of Uruk.
Mesopotamian Civilizations invented the sexagesimal number system (base 60), the origin of the 60-minute hour
in time system and 360 degrees in a full circle. Similar to every number system, base-60 takes inspiration from
hand counting. Each finger has three sections so that a single hand can count up to 12. Combined with five
fingers in another hand, it results in 12 X 5 = 60.
There is evidence that Mesopotamian knew about fundamental mathematical theorems such as the Pythagoras
theorem and a good approximation of Pi's value.
Religion
Their geographical location influenced the religious views of Mesopotamian.
Tigris and Euphrates were not predictable rivers and often destroyed crops by
floods and ravaged established cities because of course change. Due to the
above reasons, the Mesopotamian gods were unpredictable with great
destructive powers; hence, the priests needed to keep gods in a good mood by
performing rituals.
The religion was polytheistic, and the gods were associated with elements of
nature. Enlil, the god of wind and air, was considered the chief of gods.
Political Structure
The head of the city-states were king and head-priests. Open deserts and swamps separated the cities and made communication difficult. Cities were in constant
warfare, and the once unified empire didn’t last for many generations. Mesopotamians believed that King and Queen were descended from the City of Gods and
directly connected with the gods. People considered the king an intermediary with the god rather than a real god in contrast to Egyptians.
Social Structure and Law
City-States of Mesopotamia independently created their laws based on the decisions made by kings. One of the most
famous code was the Code of Hammurabi, based on the “eye for an eye” philosophy. An innovation in law was the
“Innocent until proven guilty” code.
However, not everyone was equal before the law. There was a continuous degradation of woman rights, and a woman
was considered a man's property. It was evident from the size of female statues being smaller in size than the figures of
a man in some evidence pieces. The King and Temple owned a majority of the land.
Mathematics
Ziggurats, which are the predecessor to the Egyptian Pyramids, are among the most
distinctive forms of architecture. The cities had great walls and gateways. Artists used
figures of gods, war heroes and beasts to decorate the walls and gateway cities. A prime
example of it would be the Ishtar Gate at Pergamon Museum. Due to the lack of building
stones, the monuments were mainly constructed from baked mud bricks, making them
less durable than monuments built from building stones.
Architecture
The Louvre Stele with Code of
Hammurabi
The reconstruction of the Ishtar
Gate in the Pergamon Museum
A reconstruction of the appearance
of a Sumerian ziggurat
Sculptor showing Enlil sitting on
his throne
Tablet describing Flood myth in
the epic of Gilgamesh
Babylonian Cuneiform
Numerals
Finger-counting in
sexagesimal number
system
Early Writing Tablet
recording allocation of
beer