This document provides an overview of orofacial pain (OFP), including definitions, classifications, neural pathways, evaluation of patients, and treatment principles. OFP can be caused by diseases of the orofacial structures, musculoskeletal diseases, psychological factors, or referred pain from other sources. Evaluation of a patient with OFP involves taking a thorough history and performing a physical exam, with imaging and diagnostic nerve blocks used as needed to determine the cause. Classification systems organize OFP into physical and psychological categories to guide diagnosis and interdisciplinary treatment.
an overview of muscle pain disorder which regularly create some discomfort for patient to live a normal life as well as to the doctor regarding diagnosis of the problem.
an overview of muscle pain disorder which regularly create some discomfort for patient to live a normal life as well as to the doctor regarding diagnosis of the problem.
abscess advanced trauma life support anterio advanced trauma life support antibiotics apically repositioned flap dental diseases dr dr shabeel drshabeel’s face eye trauma lidocaine anodontia management medical medicine misuse and abuse orthodontics teeth braces pharmacy pn preparation dental students for community based ed presentations s abscess abscess tooth active orthodonti shabeel shabeel"s shabeel’s shabeelpn trends of antimicrobial usage in dental practice View all
’s abscess abscess advanced trauma life support anterio abscess tooth active orthodontics adolescent advanced trauma life support aesthetic dentistry airway management alignment of teeth amalgam anesthesia in dentistry anesthetics in dentistry anterior open bite antibiotic resistanace antibiotics antibiotics and leukopenia aphthous ulcers apically repositioned flap apicoectomy appliances arch dental arch form orthodontics braces arch length orthodontics braces arch wire orthodontist braces ayurvedha baby teeth bloger boil books braces braces teeth cancer canker sore pain cavity preparation children community based learning congenitally missing teeth cosmetic dentistry csf leaks dental dental anesthetics dental restorations dental teeth dento alveolar fractures disease
Orofacial pain is the field of dentistry devoted to the diagnosis and management of complex facial pain and oro motor disorder
Orofacial pain is the term covering any pain in the mouth , Jaw and face
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION
TYPES OF TRAUMA FROM OCCLUSION
GLICKMAN CONCEPT
WAERHAUG CONCEPT
STAGES OF TISSUE RESPONSE TO INJURY
CLINICAL AND RADIOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF TFO
CLINICAL DIAGNOSIS OF TFO
TFO AND IMPLANTS
TREATMENT OF TFO
CONCLUSION
REFRENCES
CONSIST OF INDTRODUCTION, PAIN DEFINITION , MECHANISM OF PAIN, THEORIES OF PAIN, PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF PAIN, THORIES OF DENTIN HYPERSENSTIVITY , TREATMENT
this presentation discusses pain pathways, definition and glossary of pain symptoms, classification of pain, pathogenesis, causes, diagnosis , types and treatment of neuropathic pain
illustrated with figures
abscess advanced trauma life support anterio advanced trauma life support antibiotics apically repositioned flap dental diseases dr dr shabeel drshabeel’s face eye trauma lidocaine anodontia management medical medicine misuse and abuse orthodontics teeth braces pharmacy pn preparation dental students for community based ed presentations s abscess abscess tooth active orthodonti shabeel shabeel"s shabeel’s shabeelpn trends of antimicrobial usage in dental practice View all
’s abscess abscess advanced trauma life support anterio abscess tooth active orthodontics adolescent advanced trauma life support aesthetic dentistry airway management alignment of teeth amalgam anesthesia in dentistry anesthetics in dentistry anterior open bite antibiotic resistanace antibiotics antibiotics and leukopenia aphthous ulcers apically repositioned flap apicoectomy appliances arch dental arch form orthodontics braces arch length orthodontics braces arch wire orthodontist braces ayurvedha baby teeth bloger boil books braces braces teeth cancer canker sore pain cavity preparation children community based learning congenitally missing teeth cosmetic dentistry csf leaks dental dental anesthetics dental restorations dental teeth dento alveolar fractures disease
Orofacial pain is the field of dentistry devoted to the diagnosis and management of complex facial pain and oro motor disorder
Orofacial pain is the term covering any pain in the mouth , Jaw and face
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION
TYPES OF TRAUMA FROM OCCLUSION
GLICKMAN CONCEPT
WAERHAUG CONCEPT
STAGES OF TISSUE RESPONSE TO INJURY
CLINICAL AND RADIOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF TFO
CLINICAL DIAGNOSIS OF TFO
TFO AND IMPLANTS
TREATMENT OF TFO
CONCLUSION
REFRENCES
CONSIST OF INDTRODUCTION, PAIN DEFINITION , MECHANISM OF PAIN, THEORIES OF PAIN, PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF PAIN, THORIES OF DENTIN HYPERSENSTIVITY , TREATMENT
this presentation discusses pain pathways, definition and glossary of pain symptoms, classification of pain, pathogenesis, causes, diagnosis , types and treatment of neuropathic pain
illustrated with figures
Physiology of Pain, Characteristic of pain, Basic consideration of nervous system, Pain receptor, Mechanism of pain causation, Theories of pain, Pathways of pain, Pain Receptors
In this presentation I have tried to explain in brief about pain management, different types of pain, its diagnostic criteria, its physiology, and its treatment approaches both pharmacological and non pharmacological
Definition n classification •Pathophysiologyof pain. •Physiological Effects of pain. •Pharmacological & non-pharmacological methods of analgesia. •Principles of pain management.METHODS OF CONTROLLING METHODS OF CONTROLLING
Non-pharmacological Preoperative counseling TENS Acupuncture
Pharmacological Opioids •Im •IV infusion •IV PCA Local anaesthetics: •Local Infiltration •Nerve Blocks •Epidural Blocks NSAIDS •IM •IV infusion •IV PCA
NON-PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS PRE-OP COUNSELLING: Well informed patients about: •Nature of operation •Nature of post operative pain •Methods of analgesia available
Cope better with Post –op Pain
NON-PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS TENS (Trans Cutaneous electric nerve stimulation)
Stimulates afferent myelinated (A-beta) nerve fibers at 70hz
Inhibitory circuits within sp cord activated
Nerve impulse transmission reduced
Maximum benefit in neurogenic pain
PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS OPIODS •Activate opiodreceptors within the CNS •Reduce transmission of nerve impulses by modulation in the dorsal horn
PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS
LOCAL ANAESTHETICS –Blocks the conduction of nerve impulses –Can be given with adrenaline because •Decreases absorption of L.A allowing larger doses •Also acts on alpha 2 receptors which potentiates analgesic effect
PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS
NASIDS –Blocks synthesis of PG’s –Only suitable for miledto moderate pain
PRINCIPLE OF MANAGEMENT OF PAIN •Pre-emptive analgesia •Balanced or combination analgesia •Analgesia ladder
PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS
Balanced Analgesia –NASID are used in conjunction with opioids. –Reduces amount of opioids –Reduces side affect of opioids,ASSESMENT OF PAIN •Observe the behaviour of the patient •Monitor analgesic requirement of the patient –Visual Analogue Score( VAS )
–Verbal Rating Score ( VRS ) •None •Mild •Moderate •severe
Similar to oro-facial pain (other than neuralgias) (20)
describes the etiopathogenesis , clinical features, investigations, differential diagnosis and management and prophylaxis of all important viral lesions affecting the oral cavity
Granulomatous diseases of the head & neckMammootty Ik
covers all the important granulomatous diseases of head and neck region with a brief and to-the-point description of pathogenesis, clinical features , differential diagnosis and management of each disorder
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
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micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
2. CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Definition
• Terminologies
• Neural pathways
• Classification
• Evaluation of Orofacial pain patient
• General Treatment principles
• Common facial pain disorders(other than neuralgia)
• References
3. INTRODUCTION
• OFP – presenting symptom of a broad spectrum of diseases
• As a symptom may be due to:
– Diseases of the oro-facial structures
– Generalised musculoskeletal disease
– Psychological abnormalities
– may be referred from other sources
– May also occur in the absence of detectable physical, imaging or
laboratory abnormalities.
• An interdisciplinary approach is required to establish
diagnosis and for treatment.
4. WHAT IS PAIN ?
Task force on Taxonomy of IASP
“Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience
associated with actual or potential tissue damage or described
in terms of such damage”
Traditional Approach (Bio medical Model)
embraced a dualistic viewpoint that conceptualized the
mind and body as functioning separately and
independently.
Biopsychosocial model
5. TERMINOLOGIES
Nociceptors: Receptors that are sensitive to painful stimulus and are
responsible for initiating the generation of pain
Nociception: Mechanism that provides for the conversion of noxious or
potentially noxious stimuli into neural impulses
Allodynia: Pain that is produced by a stimulus that is not normally painful
Pain threshold: the minimum intensity of a stimulus that is perceived as
painful.
Pain tolerance is the maximum level of pain that a person is able to tolerate
6. TERMINOLOGIES
Hyperesthesia: is an increased sensitivity to stimuli and does not imply a
painful sensation but rather an augmented response to specific sensory
mode
Hyperalgesia: Increased sensitivity to painful stimulus. It is a special case of
hyperesthesia
Hypoesthesia: Reduced sensation in response to stimulus
Causalgia: burning pain often associated with trophic skin changes in the h
and or foot, caused by peripheral nerve injury. may be exagerated by
slightest stimuli or it may be intensified by the emotions.
7. Neuralgia: intense burning or stabbing pain caused by irritation of /
or damage to a nerve. The painis usually brief but maybe sever. Pain is
usually felt along the area of distribution.
Neuropathy:
Anyof numerous functional disturbances and pathologic changes in th
e peripheral nervous system
Referred pain: heterotopic pain that is felt in an area that is
innervated by a nerve different from the one that mediates the primary
pain.
8. NEURAL PATHWAY OF PAIN
Fields has noted that the subjective
experience of pain arises by 4 distinct
process:
Transduction
Transmission
Modulation
Perception
9. Transduction:
process – noxious stimuli lead to electrical
activity in the appropriate sensory nerve endings.
Several type of sensory receptors:
1. Merkels corpuscles- tactile receptors –submucosa
of tongue and oral mucosa
2. Meissners corpuscles:tactile recptors in skin
3. Ruffnis corpuscles: pressure and warmth receptors
4. Krausse’s corpuscles or end-bulbs: cold receptors
10. 5. Nociceptors or free nerve endings:
- found in almost all tissues
- identifies tissue injury
- may respond to multiple stimulus- polymodal
All sensory receptors are attached to afferent neuron(first-order
neurons)which vary in their Dm and conduction velocity:
Type A fibers
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Type C fibers
Carry tactile and proprioceptive
impulse not pain
Carries pain sensation.Pricking pain is
mediated A-delta and dull aching burning is
mediated by Type C fibers
11. Transmission:
Neural events that carry nociceptive inputs to CNS for
processing.
3 basic components:
First order neurons:-
Carries nociceptive from the sensory receptor to the spinal cord
Second order neuron
Carries the input to higher centres
Involves a no. of neurons that send the input upto thalamus
Interactions between thalamus , cortex and limbic system
12. Modulation:
Refers to ability of CNS to control the pain-transmitting neurons.
Several areas of cortex and brainstem have been identified –can
either enhance or reduce nociceptive input arriving by way of the
transmitting neurons
Perception:
When the nociceptive input reaches the cortex perception occurs
Immediately initiates a complex interaction of neurons between
the higher centres
Suffering and pain behaviour begin
13. SOMATIC PAIN PATHWAY
Information from the tissue outside the
CNS needs to be transferred into the CNS-
on to the higher centers-once evaluated-
sends down impulses down the spinal cord
–to efferent organ.
Primary afferent neurons (1st order
neuron)recieves impulses form the sensory
receptor-pain mediated by a-delta and C-
fibers.
Primary neuron synanpses at dorsal
horn(substantia gelatinosa) of the spinal
cord with a second order neuron
14. Most of second order crosses the midline to enter
the antero-lateral spinothalamic tract (carries
broder spectrum –pain warmth cold crude
tactile)which ascends to the higher centers
Some remain on the same side of dorsal column
and ascend by way of lemniscal system(touch
pressure vibration and proprioception)
15. The trigeminal Pathway
Sensory input from face and oral structures is carried by Vth cranial
nerve.
Cell bodies of the afferent neurons are located in the large gasserian
ganglion.
Impulses carried by TN enter directly into the brain stem – pons –to
synapse with Trigeminal spinal tract nucleus
Trigeminal brainstem nucleus complex consists of
Main sensory nucleus located rostrally
Spinal tract nucleus located caudally
Subnucleus oralis
Subnucleas interpolaris
Subnucleus caudalis
Motor nucleus
18. Axis II(psychological condition)
Mood disorder
Depression
Bipolar disorder
Mood disorder resulting from medical condition
Anxiaety disorder
Generalised anxiaety disorder
Post traumatic stress disorder
Anxiety arising from a medical condition
Somatoform disorder
Undifferentiated somatoform disorder
Conversion disorder
Pain disorder
Hypochondriasis
Other conditions
Malingering
Psychological affecting a medical condition
Personality traits or coping style
Maladaptive health behaviour
Stresss-related physiological response
Any other mental disorders not mentioned in this classification
19. Part One: Primary headache
1. Migraine
2. Tension-type head ache
3. Cluster head ache and other trigeminal autonomic cephalgias
4. Other primary Headaches
Part Two: secondary headache
5. Attributed to head/neck trauma
6. Attributed to cranial or cervical vascular disorder
7. Attributed non-vascular intra-cranial disorder
8. Attributed to substances or their with drawal
9. Attributed to infection
10. Attributed to disorder of homeostasis
11. Attributed to disorder of cranium, neck , eyes,ears, nose,sinuses,teeth , mouth or other facial or
cranial strutures
12. Attributed to psychiatric disorder
Part Three: cranial neuralgias,central and primary facial pain, and other head aches
13 cranial neuralgias and central causes of facial pain
14 Other headache, cranial neuralgia cantral or primary facial pain.
CLASSIFICATION OF HEAD ACHE(IASP)
20. History
Clinical examination
History
Chief complaint
History of present illness
1. Chronology of onset
2. Location of symptoms as pointed by the patient
3. Quality of the symptoms:-
• Aching/ Dull/pressure pain- represents musculoskeletal
category
• Throbbing /stabbing/pounding-neurovascular
• Itching/burning/electric shock like pain-neuropathic pain
Evaluation of Orofacial pain patient
21. 4. Behaviour of pain:
Temporal behaviour- frequency and periods between episodes
Intermittent
continous
Duration
Momentary
Long-lasting
Protracted
Localization behaviour
5. modifying factors
effect of functional activities
Effect of physical modalities
Effect of medication
Effect of emotional stress
6. Associated symptoms(tearing,nasal congestion,
nausea,vomitting,sensitivity to light,parasthesia,otalgia,headache)
22. 7. medical history:
Comorbid systemic diseases
History of trauma to head and neck
History of previous treatments and outcomes
8. psychological and social history:
Routine psychologic evaluation-may not be necessary for acute pain- but
essential chronic pain
Evaluated and managed by a multidisciplinary approach
Variety of measuring tools that can be used to assess psychologic status-
Multidimensional pain inventory(MPI)
Evaluate three pain profiles:
Adaptive coping
Interpersonal distress
Dysfunctional chronic pain
Synptom Check List(SCL-90)
Provides two scales
a depression scale
Scale measuring the severity non specific physical
symptoms(somatization scale)
23. Psychological conditions that can contribute to 0r
actually be responsible for pain disorders:
Somatoform disorders :
Characterised by complaints of physical symptoms like pain-no
demonstratable organic findings
Conversion disorder:
Alteration or loss of physical functioning-suggests a physical
disorder-but actually apparent expression of psychological
conflict or need
Hypochondriasis:
preoocupation with fear or belief of having a serious disease.
27. PAIN ASSESSMENT METHODS
Assist in the process of D/d and evaluation of treatment
effectiveness
Pain experience- subjective-cannot be objectively measured by a
single test
Most rely on pts ability to express the experience of pain ,
questionaire , diary or interview
Pain intensity measurement methods:
Visual analog scale(VAS)
Numerical Rating Scale(NRS)
Verbal Rating Scale(VRS)
28. Visual Analog scale
Linear scale on which patients specify their level of
pain by indicating the position along a continous
10cm line b/w 2 end points
Distance from the low end of VAS to the patients mark
is mearured- numerical index of pain severity.
Disadvantages: requirement to have a minimal motor
skill and visual and cognitive ability
Failure of VAS is related to educational level ,
cognitive impairment and motor disability and not age
per se
29. Numerical Rating Scale:
Involves asking the patient to rate the pain 0 to
10 or 0 to 100 -0 represents no pain and 10 or
100 represents pain as bad as it could be.
Advt: good sensitivity
Easy to administer
Generates data that can be statistically analysed
Useful geriartic patients and those with impaired motor
skill
30. Verbal Rating scale
Consist of a series of verbal pain description from least to most intense
Many different VRS lists have been created with adjectives –gradual
change in pain intensity
For eg: 4- point scale by Seymore
Score 0 – No pain
Score 1 – mild pain
Score 2 – moderate
Score 3 – severe pain
Advt- simple to understand
Preferred for older adults –requires to interpret and express their
pain verbally
Disadvt: time consuming – if the list is too long to
review
less reliable among illitrates
31. Mcgill pain Questionairre
Widely used self-rating instrument for measurement of pain in
clinical and research settings
Takes into account motivational-affective-cognittive
psychological aspects- sensory physiological aspects
Enables the pt to choose from 78 adjectives –arranged in 20
groups:
Group 1 to 10- assess the ssensory dimensions
Group 11 to 15-assess the affective dimensions
Group 16-assess the evaluative dimensions
Group 17 to 20- describes miscellaneous dimensions
Rank value for each descriptor is based on its position –sum
total of which gives pain rating index(PRI)
Additionally there is rating scale for Present Pain Intensity
32. Diagnostic imaging:
Use of a specific diagnostic imaging depends on DD
after history and examination have been completed
and evaluated
Needs to consider the cost, potential benefits,
radiation dose and availability of various imaging
techniques
Plain films , panoramic radiographs, conventional and
computed tomography- osseous morphology and
disorders of the joint
MRI is most specific and sensitive for interpretation of
soft tissue and inflammatory condition in the joint
Because 10% of patients with symptoms of TN have
underlying CNS disorder- MRI of brain with thin
sections through the brain is indicated.
33. Diagnostic Nerve Block
Helpful in establishing a diagnosis-when used to distinguish
peripheral disease from more centrally acting neuropathic pain.
If pain does not resolve- neuropathic changes are likely to be
central in origin
Information gathered from diagnostic nerve block can be
ambigous :
LA may induce systemic effects
Proximity of other neural structures to the nerve , ganglion or plexus
being blocked
Placebo effects
Technical limitattions- accurate diagnostic nerve block
Anatomic variations
Pts may premedicate themselves before the diagnostic nerve blocks
34. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TREATMENT
Pain management (also called pain medicine or algiatry)- branch of
medicine employing an interdisciplinary approach for easing the suffering
and improve the quality of life of those living with pain.
Interdisciplinary therapies include:
Education and counselling
Pharmacological measures
Pain management techniques such as:
Electric nerve stimulation techniques
Nerve – blocking procedures
Acupuncture
Psychological therapy: cognitive , behavioural
Relaxation training via biofeedback, mental imagery, yoga and meditation
Hypnotherapy
Occupational therapy
Physical therapy modlaities
Stretching strengthening and conditioning programs
35. Treatment goals usually focus on:
Managing medication misuse or abuse
Increasing function
Reducing the use of medical resources
Decreasing pain intensity
Managing associated depression and anxiety
36. COGNITIVE THERAPY:
Individuals affect and behaviour are largely determined by the manner
in which he/she structures the world
In chronic OFP,not unusual encounter patients – express ideas that are
based on false assumptions.
Maladaptive thoughts lead to behaviour that contribute to the disease
Cognitive- behavioural model suggests that pts develop negative and
distorted convictions regarding functional capactiy ,diagnosis ,
prognosis and future- affect behaviour and reinforced when activity or
recondtioning proves to be painful;
Four basic components:
Education
Skill acquisition
Cognitive and behavioural rehearsal
Generalization and maintenance
37. Relaxation therapy:
Relaxation techniques are used for non-directed
calming rather than achieving a specific therapeutic
goal
Do not always reduce pain intensity and are
recommended as an adjunctive traetment
GUIDED IMAGERY: (involves recall of a pleasant or
peaceful experience) and YOGA are examples:
Relaxation techniques share 2 basic components:
Repetitive focus on a word sound, prayer, phrase, body
sensation or muscle activity
Adoption of a passive attitude toward intruding thoughts and a
38. Drug therapy:
Significant part of OFP management
Analgesics are generally divided into 3 groups:
Non-opiods(acetaminophens &NSAIDs)
Opiods
Adjuvants
Often involves simultaneous use of more than one drug
Takes advantage of different mechanisms of action of different
drugs
Also allow the use of smaller dose –
May reduce adverse effects or risks
Oral route of administration is preferred for compliance
and convenience
Drug dose titration is required to establish proper
39. Acetaminophen
Nacetyl-p-amino phenol- OTC analgesic and anti-pyretic
drug
Also available in controlled formulations in combination with
codeine and other opiods
Fewer side effects compared to otherNSAIDs
Mechanism of action;
The main mechanism proposed is the inhibition of
cyclooxygenase (COX), and recent findings suggest that it is highly
selective for COX-2.
In 2011, Anderson et al, metabolites of paracetamol e.g. NAPQI, act
on TRPA1-receptors in the spinal cord to suppress the signal
transduction from the superficial layers of the dorsal horn, to alleviate
pain.
40. NSAIDs
class of drugs that provides analgesics antipyretic effects, and, in
higher doses, anti-inflammatory actions
Most NSAIDs inhibit the activity of (COX-1) and (COX-2), and
thereby, the synthesis of PGs and thromboxanes- inhibiting COX-
2 leads to the anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic effects-
inhibiting COX-1 may cause gastrointestinal bleeding and ulcers.
selective COX-2(celecoxib and rofecoxib) inhibitors pose less
risk of GI bleeding and do not inhibit platelet aggregation.
Combination of NSAIDs increse the risk of side effects
Treatment with cox-2 inhibitors-pose increased risk for
cardiovascular problems
41. Opiods
Largest group of opioids that used for analgesia consists of morphine-
like agonists
Their most important effects are on the CNS and GI system
Mechanism of action:
Bind to m-opiod receptors –actions that lead to analgesic effect
At membrane level- opening of K+ channels and inhibiting voltage gated Ca2++
channels-decresae in neuronal excitability.
At spinal level: inhibits transmission of nociceptive impulses through the dorsal
horn
Use of opiod therapy in moderate to severe acute pain and cancer pain
is well established
Concern regarding administering for non-malignant pain relates to risk of
additional disability and anti-social behaviour with long term opiod use
Agonist-antagonist drugs(pentazocine,buprenorphine,butorphanol)-
moderate to severe acute pain-may cause withdrawal symptoms in pts
taking mu agonists-psychomimetic effects-agitation dyphoria and
confusion
42. Adjuvant drugs:
TCAs(Tri Cyclic Antidepressant) like amytriptyline-most frequently
studied in clinical trials in chronic OFP treatment-
Better off than 74% of chronic OFP pts receiving a placebo
Mechanism of Action:
Seratonin and Norepinephrine –play role in desecending inhibitory
transmissions from brain to the dorsal horns-modulating nociceptive impulses
TCAs block the reuptake of seratonin and NE-enhance central inhibitory
system in pain processing-at doses less than those required anti-dpressive action
Usually introduced at lower dose-gradually increased to reduce adverse
effects
SEs: dry mouth, increased apetite and weight gain , cardiac effects
sedation and dysphoria
43. Anticonvulsant drugs
Effective in the treatment of TN, , diabetic neuropathy and
for migraine prophylaxis
Mechanism of Action:
Carbamazepine(tergetrol) stabilizes the inactivated state of voltage-
gated sodium channels- leaves the affected cells less excitable until
the drug dissociates
also GABA receptor agonist- potentiate GABA receptors- may
contribute to its efficacy in neuropathic pain and manic-depressive
illness.
Frequent side effects: sedation, dizziness, ataxia
The starting dose to treat TN is 100 mg twice daily.control of pain is
maintained in most patients with a dosage of 400to 800 mg daily
Newer drugs like felbamate, lamotrigine produce fewer SEs
44. Gabapentin:
Become commonly used in pain management partly
because of its relatively few side effects
Mechanism of action:
Binding to cal cium channels and modulating calcium influx as well as
influencing GABAnergic neurotransmission
A new newer drug similar to Gabapentin konown to have
fewer side effects is pregablin.
A variety of other adjuvant drugs are used in pain
mangement such as mexiletine, clonidine,
clonazepam and alprazolam- though there is only
limited clinical trials conducted regarding its role chronic
OFP management.
45. Topical medications:
Has the advantage of reduced systemic absorption and thereby
reducing the SEs
Capsaicin:
Used a topical cream-effective for the management of Post- herpetic
neuralgia(PHN)
Natural product extracted from pungent red chilli pepper.
Single application- causes burning sensation- resolves after repeated
application
Mechanism of action:
Blocks C-fiber conduction-inactivates release of neuropeptides from peripheral
nerve endings-depletes stores of substance P from sensory neurons-decresing
the inputs to the CNS neurons
Doxipine clonidine , ketamine, cyclobenzaprine and
carbamazepine- used topically for chronic OFP-not subjected to
clinical trials so far
Topical NSAIDs like diclofenac effective for musculoskletal pain
47. CUTANEOUS AND MUCOGINGIVAL PAINS OF
THE MOUTH
Categorised under superficial somatic pain:
Bright , stimulating quality
Excellent subjective localization and anatomically
accurate.
Site identifies –correct location of its source
Topical application of LA-temporarily arrests the pain
48. CUTANEOUS PAIN OF THE FACE:
Usually described as itching, pricking, stinging, burning.
Initially felt as fast, sharp, pricking pain-mediated by A-delta
Later slightly delayed, less sharp, burning, less precisely located-
C-fibers
Diagnosis is easy-precisely felt at the site of cause
If not immediately evident- might be a heterotopic-topical
application of LA at the site of pain helps in such cases.
49. MUCOGINVIAL PAINS OF THE MOUTH:
Features of superficial somatic pain
Usually described as stinging, burning sensation.
Pain from lining tissue precisely located.
Is an expression of primary hyperalgesia of tissues that are hurt.
Pain due to – trauma, allergic responses, local infections, systemic
conditions, burning mouth syndrome.
Allergic responses – stomatitis venenata, Stomatitis medicamentosa
Systemic conditions – nutritional deficiencies, anaemia, blood
dyscrasias, intoxification, infections, diabetes
50. BURNING MOUTH SYNDROME:
Reserved for describing oral burning that has no detectable cause.
Do not follow anatomic pathway-no mucosal lesions or known neurologic or systemic
disorders-no characteristic laboratory findings
Etiology :
Cause remains unknown
Can be a symptom of local factors or systemic deseases including hormonal and allergic
disorders,salivary gland hypofunction,chronic low-grade trauma and psychiatric
abnormalities.
May also be a complication of drug therapy with ACE inhibitors.
Depression is frequently asso with psychological disorders in many studies.-not sure wether
its is the cause or effect or BMS
51. Features:
Women affected 7 times more frquently than men
10 to 15 % of postmenopausal women are found to have ahistory of BMS –
most prevalent 3 to 12 years after menopause.
Tongue is the most common site of involvement.
Can be intermittent or contimous.
Drinking or placing candy or chewing gum characteristically relieves the
symptoms
Generally anxious and high-strung-less appetite- insomnia
Other causes of burning symptoms of oral mucosa must be eliminated.
Combination of xerostomia with BMS must be evaluated for salivary gland
disorder.
Lab tests –detect undiagnose Diabetic neuropathy, anemia or Fe –
deficiency, folate or vitamin B12
52. Management:
Once diagnosed, pt should be reassured of the benign
nature of the condition.
Pts with more severe symptoms may require drug therapy
that includes:
Low dose of TCAs or clonazepam (clinician prescribing these
should familiarize with SEs)
A 2-month course of 600mg daily of alpha-lipoic acid –shown
to reduce BMS pain
Systemic capsaicin(0.25% capsule 3/d for 30 days)
54. TOOTH ACHE:
Odontogenic tooth ache:
Pulpal origin
Pain is of visceral character –threshold type-as opposed to graduated response compared
to musculoskeletal pain
Respond to impact, shock, thermal & chemical irritants, direct exploration.
Non localizable.
Classified : acute , chronic, recurrent, mixed .
Do not remain the same
Acute pulpal pain
Non localizable.
Cause –responds to injury-inflammatory changes-may be reversible unless congestion
occurs-pulpal necrosis-threshold is decreased
Response
Pain – hypersensitivity, throbbing. Aggravating factors. Progress
55. Chronic pulpal pain
Injured pulal tissue may progress from an acute to
chronic inflammatory phase –neithr resolution – nor
necrosis.
Pain is milder . Symptomless
Recurrent pulpal pain
Sensed as Recurrent hypersensitivity
Asso with changes in vascular pressure or fluid balance
So- called high-altitude tooth ache fall into this category.
56. Periodontal origin:
Deep somatic pain of the musculoskeletal type.
More localised-related to biomechanical function.
Arise due to local cause like trauma, occclusal overloading, or may result from
spreading inflammatory reaction through apical canal / lateral root
canal(causing peripaical/periodontal abscess)
quality is dull aching and occasionally throbbing
Indentifiable periodontal condition.
Pain proportional to provocation of the tooth
Pain is reduced or eliminated by a local anesthetic injection of the tooth region
57. Tooth ache of non odntogenic origin:
Features:
Failure of local provocation of site of pain
Failure of local anesthetic agent to reduce the pain
They include:
Muscular toothache
Neurovascular toothache
Cardiac toothache
Neuropathic toothache
Sinus toothache
Psychogenic toothache
58. TOOTH ACHE OF MYOFASCIAL RORIGIN:
Myofascial pain –regional myogeneous pain characterised by local areas of firm
, hypersensitive bands of muscle tissue –trigger points.
Etiology – complex-simons et al described certain local and systemic factors –
trauma , hypovitaminosis,poor physical conditioning, fatigue and viral infections-
also emotional stress
Recent studies-pointed toward genetic polymorphism of gene coding for
catechol-o-methyltransferase –involved in catecholamine metabolism.
59. Features :
Pain is relatievely constant, dull, aching, non –pulsatile
Pain is not altered by local stimulation of the tooth
Examination reveals the presence of localised
firm,hypersensitive bands within the muscle tissue
Increased with funstion of invovlved muscle
Palpation and stimulation of the trigger points increase the
tooth ache
Confirmed anesthesia of tooth doesnot relieve the tooth
ache
LA inj of involved muscle (trigger points) reduces the tooth
ache
60. Management of myofascial pain:
Eliminate any source of ongoing deep pain input
Reduce the local and systemic factors
If sleep disorder is suspected,proper evaluation and referrel
should be made
Treatment and elimination of the trigger points.following
techniques can be used to achieve this:
Spray and stretch –vapocoolant spray(ethyl chloride) –actively
stretching
Pressure and massage
Ultrasound and electrogalvanic stimulation
Pharmocological therapy-using muscle relaxant
61. NON-ODONTOGENIC TOOTHACHE OF
SINUS/NASAL MUCOSAL ORIGIN
Pain arising from the nasal mucosa –resullt of viral, bacterial or
allergic rhinitis-expressed as referred pain throughout the maxilla
and maxillary teeth .
Inflammation of the ostium-compresses nociceptors –refers pain to
maxillary teeth
62. Features:
Reports pressure felt below the eyes
Incresed by applying pressure over the involved sinus
Tooth is sensitive to percussion
Increased by lowering the head
In creased by stepping hard on to the heel of the foot
LA of tooth-partially reduce the pain or it may fail to reduce any pain
Diagnosis confirmed by CT scan or Waters view
Management considerations:
Bacterial sinusitis is often treated with β-lactamase-resistant antibiotics such as
amoxicillin with clavulinic acid-Allergic rhinitis –antihistamines or
decongestnatss
63. TOOTH ACHE OF CARDIAC ORIGIN
Cardiac ischemia can refer pain- arm,neck,face and even teeth.
Likely related to convergence of nociceptive input originating
from myocardial ischeamia carried by vagus and thoracic nerves
as they enter the CNS and ascend to the cortex.
Important to appreciate this pattern of pain referral-immediate
diagnosis and referral to appropriate HCP is critical
64. Features:
Deep,diffuse toothache that may sometimes pulsate
Has a pressure burning quality
Has a temporal behaviour-increases with physical exertion or exercise
May/may not be asso with chest pain, anterior neck pain, throat pain,
and/or shoulder pain.
History of CVS disease
Decreased with nitorglycerine tablets
Management considerations:
Complete health history is essential
When cardiac origin is suspected-referral to proper medical personnel is
mandatory
65. TOOTH ACHE OF PSYCHOGENIC
ORIGIN(SOMATOFORM TOOTH ACHE)
Term somatoform pain disorder is used to describe a cognitive perception of
pain –no demonstrable physical basis.
Pose a significant diagnostic problem
Not associated with any obvious source of local somatic tissue changes
66. Features:
Pain is reported in many teeth and/otr other sites
Pain jumps from tooth to tooth or to other locations
General departure from normal or physiological patterns of pain
Lack of response to reasonable dental treatment
Unusual and unexpected response to treatment
Chronic and often unchanging
Presents with chronic pain behaviour
Frequent use of health care systems
Unusual dependence on others
Reclusive non-functional lifestyle
Significant use of medications
Management considerations:
Somatoform disorders are mental disorder –best treated by psychologists or
psychiatrist
Any irreversible dental procedures should be avoided
67. VASCULAR PAIN:
Pain originating from vascular structures may
cause facial pain that can be mis diagnosed and
mistaken for other oral disorders.
They include:
Cranial arteritis
Cluster head ache
Migraine
Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania
68. CRANIAL ARTERITIS
Also called temporal arteritis
Inflammatory disorder involving medium-sized branches of carotid arteries-
temporal artey most involved-localised to head and face
Etiology:
Immune disoders that affect cytokines and T-lymphocytes –inflammatory
infiltrate in the walls of the arteries-characterised by multinucleated giant cell
formation-underlying trigger is unknown
69. Features:
Affects adults above the age of 50 years
Throbbing headache-accompanied by generalized symptoms, including
fever, malaise , loss of appetite.
Examination of temporal artery-thickened pulsating vessel
Since mandibular and lingual arteries may be involved –throbbing pain
in jaw or tongue-early sign
Serious complication-lead to progressive loss of vision or sudden
blindness
Lab diagnosis:
Elevated ESR and anemia
Abnormal C-reactive protein
Definitive diagnosis-biopsy-characteristic infiltrate and multinucleated
giant cell
70. Treatment:
Systemic corticosteroids-prednisone(40-60mg / day)
Tapered once the signs are controlled
ESR-helps in monitoring the disease status
Maintainance of systemic steroids for 1 to 2 years after
symptoms resolve.
Supplemented by adjuvant therapy with
immunosuppressive drugs –cyclophosphamide-
71. CLUSTER HEAD ACHE
Distinct pain syndrome –episodes of severe unilateral head pain –
occuring aroun the eye –accompanied by number of autonomic signs.
“Cluster”-indivual experience multiple head aches per day for 4 to 6
weeks and then may be without pain for months
May originate in the hypothalamus and vascular systems in the braon –
or in the cavernous sinus.
72. Features:
80 % of pts are men.
Attacks-sudden,unilateral and stabbing-causing pts to pace,cry out, or
even strike objects
Most commonly affect the area supplied by first division of TN-2 nd
division may also occur-dental consultation
Begins with aura –become excritiating within a few minutes
Each attack- lasts for 15 min to 2 hrs several times daily-majority at night.
Asso with autonomic symptoms-nasal congestion and tearing-sweating
of face,ptosis,hypersalivation,edema of eye-lid are also common signs
73. Treatment:
Acute attack aborted by breathing 100% o2
Inj sumatriptan or inhaled ergotamine may also be effective
Lithium is effective –long-tem use can cause renal toxicity
Other drugs include-prophylactic predisone, calcium channel blockers
Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania
Form of CH-occurs predominantly in women-30 to 40
yrs of age
Episodes tend to be shorter-5 to 20 minutes-upto 30
times daily
CPH tend to be become chronic overtime
Responds dramatically with indomethacin
74. MIGRAINE
Migraine is the most common of the vascular headaches-may
also cause pain of the face and the jaws.
My triggered by foods,stress,sleep deprivation,or hunger.
More common in women
Etiopathogenesis:
Classic theory : migraine is caused by vasoconstriction of
intracranial vessels(neurologic symptoms) followed by
vasodialation(pounding headache)
Triggering of neurons in the midbrain –activation of trigeminal
system –release of neuropeptides like substance p-acts on
receptors of cerebral vessels- vasodialation and vasoconstriction
75. Types:
Classic:
Starts with a prodromal aura-usually visual-includes flashing lights or
scotoma.photophobia, hemianesthesia , aphasia can be part of aura.
Aura is followed by increasingly severe head ache –unilateral throbbing asso with nausea
and vomitting.-lasts for hours to 2 or 3 days
Common:
Not preceded by aura
Pain resembles classic migraine
Basillar
Most common in young women
Neurologic symptoms aphasia taxia blindness vertigo confusion-accompanied by occipital
head ache
Facial(carotidynia)
Throbbing pain face, jaw ,neck
Involvement of caotid artery branches
Usually begins in individual of 30 to 50 years
Pts often seek dental consultation-but is not continous –lasts minutes to hours
Examination of neck reveals tenderness of caroitid artery
76. Treatment:
Should be carefully assessed to determine common food trigers
Attempts to minimize reaction to stress –relaxation techniques
Drug therapy:
May be used either prophylactically or acutely at the first sign
of attack
For abortive therapy:ergotamine, sumatriptan(5HT agonists)
For preventive therapy: propranolol, verapimil, and TCAs.
77. COMPLEX REGIONAL PAIN SYNDROME(CRPS)
Chronic systemic disease – severe pain, swelling, and changes in the skin.
often worsens over time- initially affect an arm or leg and spread throughout the
body
Types:
Type I, formerly known as reflex sympathetic dystrophy (RSD)
does not exhibit demonstrable nerve lesion
Type II, formerly known as causalgia, has evidence of obvious nerve damage.
feature the more painful and difficult-to-control symptomes of CRPS
78. Etiology:
Result from changes after trauma –that causes coupling of sensory nerve fibres
with sympathetic stimuli.
Evidence for this includes the studies that shows that surgical or drug-induced
blockades of sympathetic nervous system relieve the symptoms.
Features:
Spontaneous chronic burning pain and tenderness, accompanied by motor
dysfuncstion, sweating and cutaneous atrophy
Involved skin-edematous and erythematous-changes in blood flow-underlying
bone is demineralised.
Allodynia and hyperesthesia are common
79. Treatment:
Multidisciplinary approach includes physical therapy,
nerve blocks and drug therapy
Blockades of regional sympathetic ganglion or regional
IV blockade with guanethidine, reserpine,or
phenoxybenzamine combined with LA,successfully
employed
Bisphosphonates given IV –decreased pain in some pts
80. ATYPICAL FACIAL PAIN (ATYPICAL ODONTALGIA)
Type of chronic facial pain which does not fulfill any other diagnosis
No objective signs, negative results with all investigations/ tests, no obvious
explanation for the cause of the pain, and a poor response to attempted treatments
the term AO may be used where the pain is confined to the teeth or gums, and AFP
when the pain involves other parts of the face.
are umbrella terms for a heterogenous group of misdiagnosed or not yet fully
understood conditions- unlikely to each represent a single, discrete condition.
81. Causes:
One theory considers AFP and AO to be a form of deafferentation or phantom tooth pain
Also theorised that –form of vascular neuropathic or sympathetically maintained pain.
Others have proposed a strong psychogenic component –depressive, somatization and
conversion disorders have been described as major factors
Features:
Constant aching pain without apparent cause that can detected
Most frequent among women -4th and 5th decades of life
No trigger zones-some report pain coincided with dental procedure-oral surgry/endontic
May can be unilateral or bilateral
A thorough history and examination –evaluation of cranial nerves ,muscles of
mastication, oropharynx and teeth must be done rule out a definite cause-
Pateints with AO and AFP –normal radiographic and clinical lab findings
82. Management:
Should be counseled regarding the nature of AO and reassured that
they do not have any undetectable life-threatening disease and can
be helped without invasive procedures
TCAs such as amitryptyline,desipramine and doxepin – low to
moderate dose-effective reducing the pain
Some clinicians report benefit from topical densensitization with
capsaicin, topical anesthetics or topical doxepin
84. References
• Bell’s Orofacial pains 5th, 6th edn – Jeffrey P.Okeson
• Oral Medicine – Diagnosis and Treatment 11th edn – Burket’s
• Orofacial pain- a primerDent cln N Amr. 2013;57: 383-392
• Andersson DA, Gentry C, Alenmyr L, Killander D, Lewis SE, Andersson A,
Bucher B, Galzi J-L, Sterner O, Bevan S, Högestätt ED, Zygmunt PM
(2011). "TRPA1 mediates spinal antinociception induced by acetaminophen
and the cannabinoid Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabiorcol". Nat Commun 2:
551. doi:10.1038/ncomms1559
• Claesson, A. "On the mechanism of paracetamol's analgesic activity and a
note on related NSAID pharmacology“
• Internet sources
Editor's Notes
Motivates the individual greater than any other life experience,..
Pain is considered a symptom of disease which is to be diagnosed and treated.Unfortunately a cause and a diagnosis cannot always be established.repeted attempts to identify a cause may result in unecessary and at times harmful investigations and treatment.
Acc to this model pain is not divided into physical versus psychological components.physical,psychological , social facotrs are viewed as mutually influential forces with the potential to create an infinite no. 0f unique pain experiences
threshold of pain or pain threshold is the point along a curve of increasing perception of a stimulus at which pain begins to be felt. It is an entirely subjective phenomenon.
Axons from the spinal nucleus of CNV cross the midline – ascend to ventral posteriomedial nucleus of the thalamus nad also project to reticular formation. From the thalamus and reticular formation - neurons course and end at the somatosensory cortex– there may be multiple neurons involved in the transmission…such as 3 order, 4th order
When a pt reports with pain information must be gathered-determine the proper pain diagnosis-info is gathered 2 forms clinical history and clinical examination
Data collected must be thorough enough to determine not only physical factors but also psychological factors
Main objective-locate the source of pain that relates to pts c/o
Functional activities- common biomedical activities-movement of face,jaw or tongue and effect of swallowing head and body position
Physical modalities-effective ness of hot or cold on the pain condition.questioned wether massaging or TENS was done or not-shed light on type of pain and therapeutic responsiveness
Emotional stress can be a major contributing factor to the pain condition.pain may seem to accentuate during times of increased stress
Medical history- not only to avoid retreatment but also to determine whether the previous treatment given was of the appropriate time and dose.
Psychologic assessment becomes more essential as when the symptoms becomes more chronic-prudent to rely on a clinical psychologist or a psychiatrist
Degree and location of muscle pain & tenderness - identified by palpation which is done via digital palpation-palmar surface of the middlefinger with index and forefinger testing the adjacent areas-soft but firm pressure is applied to designated muscle a single firm thrust is better than several thrusts.
Patents response is placed one of the four categories:
A0- no pain or tenderness
A1- pt reports uncomfortability opn palpation
A2-definite pain and discomfort
A3- pt exhibits an evasive action or eye tearing or verbalizes a desire to not to have the area palpated
Only 1.2 % of young adults open less than 40mm. One must remember however,15% of healthy elederly population-open less than 40mm
One must always consider pts age and body size when designating restriction.s
NAPQI-N-acetyl para benzoquinone imine
TRPA1Transient receptor potential cation channel A1
In combination with opioid analgesics-can be used in the management of more severe pain such as post-surgical and cancer pain.
though used to treat inflammatory pain-not generally classified as anNSAID- only weak anti-inflammatory activity.
Pts may vary in their response to NSAIDS- if appropriate dosage adjustment does not produce desired effect-prudent to switch to a different NSAID
MU recptors mediates both psychoactive and somatic effects of the opoiod drugsS