The document summarizes the origin of the universe and the solar system. It discusses the Big Bang theory and other theories such as inflation theory and M-theory. It also discusses early theories on the origin of the solar system such as Descartes' vortex theory and the Kant-Laplace nebular hypothesis. Additionally, it provides details on properties of the current solar system, including classifications of planets and components such as asteroids and comets.

1. The Universe and the
Solar System

2.  Origin of the Universe
 The Big Bang and Other Theories
 Origin of Solar Systems
 Solar Systems: Properties and Current Information

3. Origin of the Universe: Creation Myths
 A creation myth is a symbolic narrative of the beginning of
the world as understood by a culture.

4. The Big Bang and Other Theories
• The proponents of the theory
were Alexander Friedman and
Georges Lamaitre in 1920.
• All the matter and energy in
the universe are crammed into
a tiny compact point
sometimes called singularity.
• The essential feature of the Big
Bang theory is the notion that
the universe appeared around
13.7 billion years ago a colossal
explosion.

5. Time Era Temperature Characteristics of the Universe
0 to 10¯⁴³ s Big Bang Infinite • Infinitely small, infinitely dense primeval fireball
• Superunified force (gravity, strong,
electromagnetic, weak forces were unified)
10¯⁴³ s Planck time 10³² K • Earliest known time that could be described by
modern physics
• Gravity separated; unified forces included strong,
electromagnetic, weak (ground unified theory)
10¯³⁵ s End of GUT 10²⁷ K • Strong force separated; unified force consisted of
electromagnetic and weak
• Quarks and leptons formed, along with their anti-
particles
10¯³⁵ to
10¯³³ s
Inflation 10²⁷ K • Size of the universe drastically increased by factor
of 10³⁰ to 10⁴
10¯ⁱ² s End of unified
forces
10¹⁵ K • Split of weak and electromagnetic forces; none of
the unified forces existed
• Protons and neutrons started forming from quarks
10⁻⁷ s Heavy particle 10¹⁴ K • Proton and neutron production in full swing
10¯⁴ s Light particle 10¹² K • Electrons and positrons formed

6. 100 s
(a few minutes)
Nucleosynthesis 10⁹ -10⁷ K • Helium, deuterium, and a few
other elements formed
380 000 years Recombination
(decoupling)
3000 K • Matter and radiation separated
• End of radiation domination of
the Universe
500 million years Galaxy formation 10 K • Galaxies anf other large
structures formed in the
universe
~14 billion years Now 3 K • You are reading this table

7. The four basic forces:

8. Supporting evidences:
1. Galaxies moving away- 1924, Edwin Hubble found that stars are not
uniformly distributed in space. Instead, they gather together, forming
clusters called galaxies.
Clusters of stars called galaxies
continue to move away from
each other.

9. 2. Presence of cosmic microwaves background (CMB)- 1960, Arno Penzias
and Robert Wilson discovered a background radio emission coming from
every direction in the sky.
Cosmic microwave background
shows remnants of the big bang
in a temperature range of ±200
microKelvin

10. 3. Abundance of light elements – Elements like helium, hydrogen, with
trace amounts of lithium and beryllium found in the observable universe
agrees with the hypotheses of the big bang theory.
Abundance of light elements such
as hydrogen, helium, lithium, and
berylium confirms the occurrence
of the big bang nucleosynthesis.

11. Other theories
 Steady state theory – Proposed by Bondi, Gold, and Hoyle in 1984. They
proposed that the universe is unchanging in time and uniform in space.

12.  Inflation Theory – Proposed by Alan Guth, Andrei Linde, Paul Steinhart,
and Andy Albrecht. This theory proposed a period of exponential
expansion of the universe prior to the more gradual big bang expansion.
A timeline of the universe
based on the big bang and
inflation models

13.  String Theory – The assembly of particle type is replaced by a fundamental
building block called string, with dimensions confined to Planck lenth
(roughly 1.6 x 10¯³⁵ m). The string theory is consistent of quantom gravity.
Also called “the theory of everything”.
gravitation –is a particle carrying the force of gravity.

14. M- Theory
 The string theory requires objects other than just strings. These objects
may be seen as sheets or branes (membranes). Strings can attach to one
both ends of these branes.
 The origin of the universe occurs as a result of the contact of two
hyperdimensional branes. Stephen Hawking and Leonard Mlodinow argue
that the collision of M-branes leads to a new universe.
 M- theory was used by Hawking can allow for an infinite number of
parallel universes which have the possibility of interphasing.
string
brane
The M-theory suggests that one or
both ends of the strings are
attached to a sheet on brane

15. Origin of the Solar System : Early
Theories
1. Descartes’ Vortex Theory
 Rene Descartes (1596-1650), a French mathematician and
physicist, was one of the first proponents of a model on the
origin of the Solar Systems.
 The Solar systemwas formed into bodies with nearly circular
orbits because of the whirlpool-like motion in the pre-solar
materials.
 The orbits of the planets are the primary whirlpool motion and
the satellites the secondary whirlpool motion.

16. Orbits of the planets as
explained by whirlpool-like
motion of pre-solar materials

17. 2. Buffon’s Collision Theory
 George Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707-1788) is a French naturalist in
the eighteenth century who proposed that the planets were formed by the
collision of the sun with a giant comet.
 Resulting debris formed into planets that rotate in the same direction as
they revolved around the sun.
Planets were formed from
debris aftes the sun’s collision
with a giant comet

18. 3. Kant-Laplace Nebular Theory
 Based on the ideas of descartes, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), and Pierre Simon
Laplace (1749-1827) proposed the nubular theory whivh suggested that a great
cloud of gas and dust, called nebula, begins to collapse because of gravititional
pull.
 As the cloud contracted, it spun more rapidly.
 Explains how the sun and the planet were created in a single process was very
attractive but it had a major flow.

19. 4. Jeans-Jeffrey’s Tidal Theory
 James Hopwood jeans (1877-1946), a British mathematician and
astrophysicist, and HAROLD Jeffreys (1891-1989),suggested a
dualistic theory in which the sun and planets were produced by
difficult mechanism.
 Proposed that the planets were formed from the substance that
was torn out of the sun.

20. 5. Solar nebula Theory
 The solar system was formed as aresult of the condensation og hydrogen gas
and dust referred to as interseller gas and dust cloud.
 Contraction in the dense region of an intersellar gas and dust cloud forms a
protostar or protosun.
 The remaining gas and dust cloud form disk-shaped (due to rotation) called
solar nebulae.
 The formation of the planets involves different stages, in contrast to the single
process of nebular theory.

21. Solar Systems: Properties and Current Information
1. The orbits of all planets are almost in the same planet. Solar system is flat.
2. The planetary orbits are nearly circular. The elliptical orbits depart only
slightly from being a perfect circle.
3. The orbits of the planets are nearly in the same plane as the rotation of the
sun.
4. All planets revolve around the sun in counterclockwise direction. Most planets
rotate their own axis in a counterclockwise fashion.
5. The distance from the planets around the sun can be expressed in a similar
relationship called bode’s law, named after Germanastronomer johann bode
(1747-1826). The calculated distances and observed distances of the planets
from the sunare almost the same, with the excemption of Neptune and Pluto.

22. 6. The satellite systems of Jupiter and Saturn are nearly identical in their
arrangements with the Solar Systems.
7. The satellites and planets contain almost all the rotational motion of the
Solar System.
8. The Solar System also contains asteroids and comets.

24. Asteroids - are made up of rocks and are sometimes referred to us minor
planets in many ways. They are atmosphere-free and they orbit around the sun.
Main asteroid belt – where most asteroids in the Solar System lie, is located
between Mars and Jupiter.

25. Ceres – the first known asteroid.
Comets – composed mainly of ice and nonvolatile dust.
Kuiper belt – often called “ final frontier” because it is at the outermost
region of the Solar System. And located beyond the orbit of Neptune, is a
reservoir of short-period comets like Halley’s comet.

26. Classification of Planets
 The planets of the modern solar system are grouped into several
different and sometimes overlapping classifications, as illustrated
in the following figure:

27.  The planets inside the orbit of the earth are called the Inferior Planets:
Mercury and Venus.
 The planets outside the orbit of the earth are called the Superior Planets:
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
 The planets inside the asteroid belt are termed the Inner Planets (or
the Terrestrial Planets): Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
 The planets outside the asteroid belt are termed the Outer Planets: Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
 The planets sharing the gaseous structure of Jupiter are termed the Gas
Giant (or Jovian) Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.