The document provides an extensive overview of oceanography, defining it as the science of the sea that encompasses its various branches: physical, chemical, biological, geological, meteorological, and applied oceanography. It discusses the significance of oceanography in understanding marine ecosystems, navigation, resource management, and its historical evolution from ancient navigation to modern scientific exploration and trends. Furthermore, it highlights the contributions of both historical and contemporary oceanographers, including technological advancements like sonar and the roles oceans play in food supply, commerce, and recreation.

1. Introduction
DEFINITIONS OF OCEANOGRAPHY:-
• According to H.A. Marmer: “Oceanography the
science of the sea, includes primarily the study of the
form and nature of the oceans basins, the
characteristics of the water in these basins and the
movement to which these water are subject to.”
• According to J. Proudman: “Oceanography studies
the fundamental principles of dynamics and thermo-
dynamics in relation to the physical and biological
properties of the sea water.”

2. Branches of oceanography
• There are generally six branches of oceanography:
1. Physical oceanography, or marine physics
attributes including temperature, salinity structure, mixing, waves,
internal waves, surface tides, internal tides, and currents.
2. Chemical oceanography, or marine chemistry, is the study of the
chemistry of the ocean and its chemical interaction with the
atmosphere;
3. Biological oceanography, or marine biology, is the study of the plants,
animals and microbes of the oceans and their ecological interaction with
the ocean;
4. Geological oceanography, or marine geology, is the study of the geology
of the ocean floor including plate tectonics and paleoceanography;
5. Meteorological oceanography, the study of the interactions of the
atmosphere and the ocean in the hydrosphere.
6. Applied oceanography:-This branch of oceanography is concerned with
the application of the oceanographic knowledge to practical problems.

3. Nature of Oceanography
• also called oceanology or marine science, is the branch of Earth science
that studies the ocean.
• Oceanography is an interdisciplinary science that involves the study of the
entire ocean.
• It covers a wide range of topics, including
 marine organisms
 Ecosystem dynamics ( study of aquatic life, planktons);
 ocean currents, waves and tides,
 geophysical fluid dynamics;
 plate tectonics
 the geology of the sea floor;
 fluxes of various chemical substances (various chemical reactions)
 physical properties( like temp. pressure, salinity, density of ocean
water) within the ocean and across its boundaries.
• These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to
further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within
it:
• biology, chemistry, geology, meteorology, and physics as well as geography

4. A Geographical approach into
Oceanography
Oceanography is a part of Physical Geography.
• Oceanography is significant to geography because the fields have
overlapped in terms of navigation, mapping and the physical and
biological study of Earth's environment.
• A Geographical approach into Oceanography include the studies of:-
 The inter-relation between sea and atmosphere and the effect on
weather.
 The problems and prospects of ocean navigation.
 the possibilities of developing plank-tonic food resources.
 The development and conservation of world fisheries and exploration
of other food resources.
 The Geographical research with the aim of knowing the reflects of
various forces under the sea.
The atmosphere and ocean are linked because of evaporation and
precipitation as well as thermal flux and solar insolation.
Wind stress is a major driver of ocean currents while the ocean is a
sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide.

5. Scope of Oceanography
• This branch of climatology is concerned with the scope of the
oceanographical knowledge to practical problems of the oceans
• It analyses the relationship of oceanography to other sciences.
• Applied oceanography can be of great help for many problems related to
coastal industries, shore communities (settlements), military and naval
establishments, ports and harbours, and other ocean problems.
• The main purpose is to find out the ways and means to make use of our
knowledge for the betterment of human life and the life in the oceans. of
oceans
• Data derived from the work of Oceanographers is used in marine
engineering, in the design and building of oil platforms, ships, harbors,
and other structures that allow us to use the ocean safely.
• Oceanographic data management is the discipline ensuring that
oceanographic data both past and present are available to researchers.

6. Importance of Oceanography
1. Throughout history humans have been directly or indirectly
influenced by the oceans.
2. Ocean waters serve as a source of food and valuable
minerals.
3. Ocean waters serve as vast highways for transport and
commerce
4. Increasingly, people are turning to the oceans for their food
supply either by direct consumption or indirectly by
harvesting fish that is then processed for livestock feed.
5. It has been estimated that as much as 10% of human protein
intake comes from the oceans.
6. Other biological products of the oceans are also
commercially used.
7. For example, pearls taken from oysters are used in jewellery,
and shells and coral have been widely used as a source of
building material.

7. Conti…
8. Ocean water is processed to extract commercially valuable
minerals such as salt, bromine, and magnesium.
9. Extensive deposits of petroleum-bearing sands.
10. On the deep ocean floor manganese nodules, formed by the
precipitation of manganese oxides and other metallic salts
around a nucleus of rock or shell, represent a potentially rich
and extensive resource.
11. Ocean water itself could prove to be a limitless source of
energy in the event that nuclear fusion reactors are
developed, since the oceans contain great quantities of
deuterium.
12. The oceans also have become more important for recreational
use, as each year more people are attracted to the sports of
swimming, fishing, scuba diving, boating, and water-skiing.

8. Contribution of oceanographers

9. Oceanography Pioneers
•Victor Hensen (1800s): plankton studies
•Alexander Agassiz (1800s): studied corals aboard
the Albatross
•Fridjtof Nansen (1800s): drifted in ice with the Fram
near the North Pole
•Walfrid Ekman (1900s): Scandinavian who studied
physical oceanography
•1909 Robert Peary reaches North Pole
•1911 Roald Amundsen reaches South Pole

10. OCEANOGRAPHY-Study of the Oceans
Contributions of the “ancients”
1. Phoenicians (from what is now
Syria and Lebanon) navigated and
traded around Mediterranean Sea,
Indian Ocean, Red Sea, and
Africa; 2000BC
2. Greeks-create Maps of Med. Sea-450BC,
Eratosthenes (Mathematician) predicted the
circumference of the earth:
42,000 KM real distance is 40,032 KM and
developed the system of longitude and
latitude.

11. Middle Ages/ Dark age (1400 BC)
1. Fall of the Roman Empire -Europe lost most of
its detailed understanding of geography
2. During this time, Arabic
nations continued to explore
and expand trade routes….
3. The Vikings were ship-
borne warriors and traders
of the north (Norsemen)
who went on expeditions to
explore the Americas,
Iceland, Greenland

12. AGE OF DISCOVERY (14 th Century)
1. Columbus attempts to
reach East Indies by
sailing west because
Eastern routes were
blocked. He crossed the
Atlantic and “found” the
Americas…
2. Balboa
He became the first
European to lead an
expedition known to
have seen or reached
the Pacific from the
New World.

13. AGE OF DISCOVERY
3. Magellan was credited with being the first
around the world… though while on
voyage, he was killed in the Philippines in
1521. However, the 18 members left of his
Crew finished the voyage in 1522.

14. MORE DISCOVERIES….
1. Captain James Cook- 1700’s
A British navigator who
discovered the Hawaiian Islands.
Is considered the best
cartographer and reckless
navigator of his time. Applied
use of latitude and longitude.
2. Ben Franklin
charted maps of the
gulf stream in 1777.
3. Charles Darwin-
1800’s sailed to the
Galapagos Islands
to study the Biology
of the Sea and in
the process
developed his
Theory of Natural
Selection.

15. 4. Edward Forbes -1800’s
predicted different types of
plant and animal life at
different depths of the ocean.
Introduced the idea of
dredging.
5. Challenger Expedition- England’s Royal
Society obtained the use of HMS Challenger to
study sea floor characteristics, chemical
composition of sea water and life at all levels!
6. Frid tjof Nansen- 1890’s Proved polar ice flowed.
Entered ice by Alaska, exited by Greenland three
years and over 1000 miles later. Determined that the
North Pole is landless

16. Post war oceanography

17. How SONAR works? Future trend?
• Greater emphasis on applied research: energy, climate, coastal
zones, biological productivity, environmental problems,
mineral & petroleum exploration & exploitation, international
laws of the sea, marine engineering
World war II- sonar

18. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY
Trends in Oceanography
• Ocean Drilling Program (ODP)
• 1980's outgrowth of OMDP & DSDP
• Need to share the growing cost of ocean research
• USA plus other countries: Great Britain, Japan, West Germany, France, USSR (later dropped out),
Canada (1983), & consortia of smaller nations sharing annual fee
Future Deep-Sea Drilling?
• The “Integrated Ocean Drilling Program” (IODP) will replace ODP.
• Proposals include drilling for petroleum in deep-water areas.
• 22 nations will contributed
• investigation of gas hydrates, climate dynamics (including the Arctic),
continental margins, petroleum resources, the subsurface biosphere,
earthquake phenomena, mineral deposits associated with the
formation of oceanic lithosphere at mid-ocean ridges

22. Foundation of Modern
Oceanography

23. 1. German expedition- 1920’s
ship named Meteor was used to map
depths in the Pacific Ocean.
2. US National Ocean Survey- Bathymetric readings to determine
how deep each ocean is. Early techniques used pre-measured
heavy rope or cable lowered over a ship's side.
3. Today : echo sounder (sonar) mounted beneath or over the
side of a boat, "pinging" a beam of sound downward at the
seafloor.
4. National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
establishes wise use of ocean
resources, minerals, oil, fish, etc…
20TH CENTURY OCEANOGRAPHY

24. HMS Challenger (1872-1876)
•first true oceanographic research expedition
•renovated a British corvette, a small warship
•led by Charles Wyville Thomson and his assistant, John
Murray
•discovered Mariana Trench; deepest spot was later
given the name Challenger Deep
•discovered mid-ocean ridge and collected water data.
To determine whether or not there is marine life in the
great depths of the open ocean.

25. MODERN TRENDS

26. Further Exploration (1900s+)
•Ocean Drilling Program: collected data about sea floor;
started with Glomar Challenger (1968), then JOIDES
Resolution and Chikyu (“Planet Earth”)
•Meteor: German ship; studied South Atlantic currents
•FLIP (Floating Instrument Platform): sits still in the water
•FAMOUS (French-American Mid-Ocean Undersea Study,
1974): studied Mid-Atlantic Ridge

27. 4. Oceanographic studies
EXPAND!! Scripps Institution of
Oceanography develop FLIP
(Floating Instrument Platform) boat that
turns vertically for research at
different depths
20th Century Oceanography
It is used to study
the way water circulates,
how storm waves are formed ?,
how heat is exchanged between the
ocean and the atmosphere?,
the sound made by underwater marine
animals.

28. Further Exploration (continued)
•Trieste: bathyscaphe that still holds the deepest
dive to 11000 m in Challenger Deep; designed by
Auguste Piccard
•SCUBA (self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus, 1943): initially developed by Jacques-
Yves Cousteau and Emile Gagnon
•SEASAT (1978): short-lived satellite; pioneer in
oceanography remote sensing
•TOPEX/Poseidon (1992-2006): satellite that
measured sea surface height to reveal info about
circulation; successful mission

29. 5. Submersibles- ALVIN
Created by Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution and can
carry up to 3 passengers to great
depths (14,764 ft.), explore the
ocean, the organisms there and
record data.