1. Nuclear fission is the splitting of atoms, usually large unstable atoms, which releases energy. Fission reactions have three steps: initiation, propagation, and termination.
2. Half-life is the time it takes for half of a radioactive sample to decay. The rate of radioactive decay depends only on the concentration of the radioactive isotope.
3. Nuclear fusion is the combining of small nuclei, such as two hydrogen nuclei fusing to form a helium nucleus. Fusion occurs in stars and is difficult to achieve on Earth.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
2. M s Def ec t & Nuc l ear
as 2
St abi l i t y
• Because an atom is made of protons, neutrons
and electrons, you would expect the mass of
an atom to be equal to the sum of the masses
of the e-, p+, and n0, right??
Neutrons + protons + electrons =
atomic mass
…right?
3. M s Def ec t & Nuc l ear
as 3
St abi l i t y
Nay.
The measured mass will be less than the combined
masses. This difference is called the Mass Defect.
Let’s look at helium ( 4 He) as an example:
2
2 protons: (2 x 1.007276 amu) = 2.014552 amu
2 neutrons: (2 x 1.008665 amu) = 2.017330 amu
2 electrons: (2 x 0.005486 amu) = 0.001097 amu
Total combined mass = 4.032979 amu
4. M s Def ec t & Nuc l ear
as 4
St abi l i t y
But wait…
The atomic mass of a 4 He atom has been measured
2
to be 4.002602 amu, NOT 4.032979 amu.
That’s 0.030377 amu LESS than the combined mass.
Just what the heck
is going on?
5. M s Def ec t & Nuc l ear
as 5
St abi l i t y
So what causes the difference in mass?
Well, according to Einstein’s famous equation E = mc2,
mass can be converted to energy, and energy to mass.
So the mass defect is caused by the conversion of mass
to energy upon formation of the nucleus.
This is called nuclear binding energy.
Remember, the nucleus is like a mousetrap, and the
nuclear binding energy is needed to “set” the trap.
It is TREMENDOUS potential energy.
6. 6
Radi oac t i vi t y
• One of the pieces of evidence for the
fact that atoms are made of smaller
particles came from the work of
________ (1876-1934).
• She discovered ________, the
spontaneous disintegration of some
elements into smaller pieces.
7. 7
Radi oac t i vi t y
• One of the pieces of evidence for the
fact that atoms are made of smaller
particles came from the work of
________ (1876-1934).
Marie Curie
• She discovered ________, the
radioactivity
spontaneous disintegration of some
elements into smaller pieces.
8. Nuc l ear Reac t i ons vs . 8
Nor m Chem c al
al i
Changes
• Nuclear reactions involve the nucleus
• The nucleus opens, and protons and
neutrons are rearranged
• The opening of the nucleus releases a
tremendous amount of energy that holds
the nucleus together – called binding
energy
• “Normal” Chemical Reactions involve
electrons, not protons and neutrons
9. 9
Mass Defect
• Some of the mass can be converted into
energy
• Shown by a very famous equation!
2
E=mc
speed of
Energy mass light
squared
10. 10
Types of Radiation
• Alpha (ά) – a positively 4
charged helium isotope - we 2 He
usually ignore the charge because it involves
electrons, not protons and neutrons
0
•Beta (β) – an electron −1 e
•Gamma (γ) – pure energy;
called a ray rather than a 0
0 γ
particle
11. 11
Other Nuclear Particles
1
• Neutron 0 n
• Positron – a positive 0
electron +1 e
•Proton – usually referred to 1
as hydrogen-1 1 H
•Any other elemental isotope
13. 13
Balancing Nuclear Reactions
•In the reactants (starting materials –
on the left side of an equation) and
products (final products – on the right
side of an equation)
Atomic numbers must balance
and
Mass numbers must balance
•Use a particle or isotope to fill in the
missing protons and neutrons
14. 14
Nuclear Reactions
• Alpha emission
Note that mass number (A) goes down by 4
and atomic number (Z) goes down by 2.
Nucleons (nuclear particles… protons and
neutrons) are rearranged but conserved
15. 15
Nuclear Reactions
• Beta emission
Note that mass number (A) is unchanged
and atomic number (Z) goes up by 1.
16. 16
Other Types of Nuclear Reactions
Positron (0+1β ): a positive electron
207 207
Electron capture: the capture of an electron
17. 17
Learning Check
What radioactive isotope is produced in the
following bombardment of boron?
10
B + 4He ? + 1
n
5 2 0
18. 18
Write Nuclear Equations!
Write the nuclear equation for the beta
emitter Co-60.
19. 19
Artificial Nuclear Reactions
New elements or new isotopes of known elements
are produced by bombarding an atom with a
subatomic particle such as a proton or neutron
-- or even a much heavier particle such as 4He
and 11B.
Reactions using neutrons are called
γ reactions because a γ ray is usually
emitted.
Radioisotopes used in medicine are often made by
γ reactions.
20. 20
Artificial Nuclear Reactions
Example of a γ reaction is production
of radioactive 31P for use in studies of P
uptake in the body.
31
P +
15
1
n --->
0
32
P + γ
15
21. 21
Transuranium Elements
Elements beyond 92 (transuranium) made
starting with an γ reaction
238
U +
92
1
n --->
0
239
U + γ
92
239
U
92 ---> 239
93 Np + 0-1β
239
93 Np ---> 239
94 Pu + 0
β
-1
23. 23
Nuclear Fission
Fission is the splitting of atoms
These are usually very large, so that they are not as stable
Fission chain has three general steps:
1. Initiation. Reaction of a single atom starts the
chain (e.g., 235U + neutron)
236
2. Propagation. U fission releases neutrons that
initiate other fissions
3. ___________ .
24. 24
Stability
of Nuclei
• Out of > 300 stable isotopes:
N Even Odd
Z
31
Even 157 52 P
15
Odd 50 5
2
19
F
9 1 H, 63Li, 105B, 147N, 18073Ta
27. 27
Nuclear Fission & POWER
• Currently about 103
nuclear power plants in
the U.S. and about 435
worldwide.
• 17% of the world’s
energy comes from
nuclear.
29. 29
Nuclear Fusion
Fusion
small nuclei combine
2 3 4 1 Energy
H + H He + n +
1 1 2 0
Occurs in the sun and other stars
30. 30
Nuclear Fusion
Fusion
• Excessive heat can not be contained
• Attempts at “cold” fusion have
FAILED.
• “Hot” fusion is difficult to contain
31. 31
Half-Life
• HALF-LIFE is the time that it takes for
1/2 a sample to decompose.
• The rate of a nuclear transformation
depends only on the “reactant”
concentration.
32. Half-Life
32
Decay of 20.0 mg of 15O. What remains after 3 half-lives?
After 5 half-lives?
33. 33
Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
For each duration (half-life), one half of the
substance decomposes.
For example: Ra-234 has a half-life of 3.6 days
If you start with 50 grams of Ra-234
After 3.6 days > 25 grams
After 7.2 days > 12.5 grams
After 10.8 days > 6.25 grams
34. 34
Learning Check!
The half life of I-123 is 13 hr. How much of
a 64 mg sample of I-123 is left after 39
hours?
38. 38
Radiocarbon Dating
Radioactive C-14 is formed in the upper atmosphere
by nuclear reactions initiated by neutrons in
cosmic radiation
14
N + 1on ---> 14C + 1H
The C-14 is oxidized to CO2, which circulates
through the biosphere.
When a plant dies, the C-14 is not replenished.
But the C-14 continues to decay with t1/2 = 5730
years.
Activity of a sample can be used to date the sample.
40. 40
Food Irradiation
•Food can be irradiated with γ rays from
60
Co or 137Cs.
•Irradiated milk has a shelf life of 3 mo.
without refrigeration.
•USDA has approved irradiation of meats
and eggs.