This pesentation explains some topics realated to the computer networking... Basically we are covering the following areas... 1. Ethernet Technology and its Evolution 2. Wireless Networking Technologies 3. IPv4 and IPv6 Coexistence This will help the students to get a good idea about Computer Networking field...

1. Ethernet Technology and its Evolution

2. Ethernet Technologies
• Ethernet Network Elements
• Ethernet Network Topologies and Structures
• The IEEE 802.3 Logical Relationship to the OSI Reference Model
• Benefits of Ethernet
Evolution of Ethernet
• Ethernet Speed Developments
• Gigabit Ethernet
• 40 GE Transmission
• 100 GE Transmission
• 400 GE Transmission
Overview

3. Ethernet Network Elements
The Ethernet IEEE 802.3 LAN can be considered to consist of two main
elements:
1. Interconnecting media
2. Network nodes
There are some interconnecting medias:
• Coaxial Cables
• Twisted Pair Cables
• Fiber optic cable
The network nodes we can divide into two major classes:
• Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
• Data Communication Equipment (DCE)

4. Ethernet Network Elements cont..
Interconnecting medias Network nodes

5. Ethernet Network Topologies and Structures
There are several network topologies that can be used for Ethernet
communications
• Point to point
• Coaxial bus Topology
• Star network
Point to point

6. Ethernet Network Topologies and Structures cont..
Coaxial bus Topology

7. Star network
This type of Ethernet network has been the dominant topology since
the early 1990s.
Ethernet Network Topologies and Structures cont..

8. The IEEE 802.3 Logical Relationship to the OSI
Reference Model
Ethernet’s Logical Relationship to the OSI Reference Model

9. MAC and Physical Layer Compatibility Requirements for Basic Data
Communication
The IEEE 802.3 Logical Relationship to the OSI
Reference Model

10. Benefits of Ethernet
Cost efficiencies
Unprecedented scalability and flexibility
Protocol neutrality
Ease of use
Reliability and general availability/ubiquity

11. Ethernet Speed Developments
Gigabit Ethernet
• 40 GE Transmission
• 100 GE Transmission
• 400 GE Transmission

12. Gigabit Ethernet
The Gigabit Ethernet standard supports a theoretical maximum data rate of
1gigabit per second (Gbps)(1000 Mbps).
Gigabit Ethernet is 100 times faster than regular 10Mbps Ethernet and 10 times
faster than 100Mbps Fast Ethernet.

13. Advantages
 Roughly 100 times faster than the regular
Mbps Ethernet.
Elimination of bottlenecks within the
Internet service.
Power to transfer large amounts of data
across a network quickly.
Low cost of acquisition and ownership
Seamless integrations with Ethernet and
Fast Ethernet-installed base.
Gigabit Ethernet cont..

14. 40 GE Transmission
Multimode ribbon fiber
• Used for distances of 100 m on OM3 and
150 m on OM4 MMF
• Data is sent using multiple 850 nm lasers
transmitting over multiple parallel fibers
• MPO cables provide multiple separate
transmit and receive strands of multimode
fiber in a ribbon cable assembly
Single-mode duplex fiber
• Used for distances of 2 km, 10 km and 40
km on standard duplex SMF
• 40 Gb/s serial transmit over one strand of
fiber and receive over the other strand of
fiber is used for 40GBASE-FR

15. 100 GE Transmission
Multimode ribbon fiber
• Used for distances of 100 m on OM3 and 150 m on OM4
MMF
• Data is sent using multiple 850 nm lasers transmitting
over multiple parallel fibers
• MPO cables provide multiple separate transmit and
receive strands of multimode fiber in a ribbon cable
assembly
Single-mode duplex fiber
• Used for distances of 2 km, 10 km and 40 km on
standard duplex SMF
• WDM component in the pluggable module multiplexes all
transmit lanes over one strand of fiber and all receive
lanes over the other strand of fiber

16. 400 GE Call for Interest (CFI) was presented at the March 2013
IEEE Plenary and approved to be an official IEEE Study Group
Reach objectives adopted by Study Group at the November 2013
IEEE Plenary
• 100 m MMF
• 500 m SMF
• 2 km SMF
• 10 km SMF
400 GE standard expected in 2016+
400 GE Transmission

17.  400 GE pluggable module evolution estimates each module increases
density, while reducing cost and power

18. http://pluto.ksi.edu/~cyh/cis370/ebook/ch03d.htm
http://compnetworking.about.com/cs/gigabitethernet/g/bldef_gigaen
et.htm
http://www.ask.com/question/advantage-and-disadvantage-of-
gigabit-ethernet
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet
http://docwiki.cisco.com/wiki/Ethernet_Technologies
References

19. Wireless Networking Technologies

20. Wireless Networking Technologies
Types of wireless networks,
 Wireless Personal Area Networks(WPANs)
 Wireless Local Area Networks(WLANs)
 Wireless mesh network
 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks(WMANs)
 Wireless Wide Area Networks(WWANs)
 Cellular network
 Global Area Network(GAN)
 Space network

21. Wireless Personal Area Networks(WPANs)
low-range wireless network, generally cover a
range of less than 10 meters (about 30 feet)
Using technologies
• Bluetooth
• Infrared
• ZigBee
generally used for linking peripheral devices
• Printers
• Cellphones
• Home applications
Connect personal assistant(PDA) to
a computer, or just two nearby computers,
without using a hard-wired connection.

22. WPANs cont..
 Bluetooth
• Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994
• Exchange data using short-
wavelength UHF radio waves in
the ISM band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz.
• Bluetooth was standardized as IEEE
802.15.1
• Cover short distances, typically up to 30
feet(10 meters).
• Devices generally communicate at less than
1 Mbps
 Infrared
• Electromagnetic radiation with
longer wavelengths than those of visible light.
• Extending from the nominal red edge of the visible
spectrum at 700 nanometers (frequency 430 THz)
to 1 mm.
• Exist in networks with 3 different forms
 IrDA-SIR (slow speed) infrared supporting
data rates up to 115 Kbps
 IrDA-MIR (medium speed) infrared supporting
data rates up to 1.15 Mbps
 IrDA-FIR (fast speed) infrared supporting data
rates up to 4 Mbps

23. WPANs cont..
 ZigBee
• ZigBee is based on an IEEE 802.15 standard
• ZigBee is used in applications that require only a low data
rate, long battery life, and secure networking
• Defined rate of 250kbps
• ZigBee networks are secured by 128 bit symmetric
encryption keys
• Transmission distances range from 10 to 100 meters line-
of-sight, depending on power output and environmental
characteristics

24. Wireless Local Area Networks(WLANs)
Cover larger area than WPANs
Modern WLANs are based on IEEE
802.11 standards
Interconnects computers within a limited area such
as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office
building, using wi-fi technology.
Wireless LANs have become popular in the home
due to ease of installation.
Also referred to as Local Area Wireless
Network(LAWN)

25. WLANs cont..
 Wi-Fi
• Is a local area wireless technology that allows an electronic device
to exchange data or connect to the internet using 2.4 GHz
UHF and 5 GHz SHF radio waves.
Types of wireless LANs..
• Peer-to-peer
• Bridge
• Wireless distribution system

26. Types of wireless LANs
 Peer-to-peer
• An ad hoc network is a network where stations
communicate only peer to peer (P2P)
• There is no base and no one gives permission
to talk.
• A peer-to-peer network allows wireless devices
to directly communicate with each other.
 Bridge
• A bridge can be used to
connect networks, typically of
different types.
• The bridge acts as the
connection point to the
Wireless LAN
• There are four types of
network bridging
technologies:
- Simple bridging
- Multiport bridging
- Learning, or transparent
bridging
- Source route bridging

27. Types of wireless LANs
 Wireless distribution system
• Enables the wireless interconnection of access points in an
IEEE 802.11 network.
• allows a wireless network to be expanded using multiple
access points without the need for a wired backbone to link
them, as is traditionally required.
• Preserves the MAC addresses of client packets across links
between access points.

28. Wireless mesh network
Wireless network made up of radio
nodes organized in a mesh topology.
Each node forwards messages on
behalf of the other nodes.
Mesh networks can "self heal",
automatically re-routing around a node
that has lost power.
Wireless mesh networking could allow
people living in remote areas and small
businesses operating in rural
neighborhoods to connect their
networks together for affordable Internet
connections.

29. Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks(WMANs)
Officially known as IEEE 802.16,
complement other wireless technologies like
Wi-Fi.
Use in large, city-sized wireless networks
that can deliver broadband Internet access
and compete against wired technologies like
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and cable
modems.
WirelessMAN standards form the basis
for WiMAX and several other wireless
broadband technologies.
Known as a point to multipoint setup.
The maximum distance for this type of
network is about 30 miles (48 km)

30. WMANs cont..
Types of WMANs,
- Back Haul
• For enterprise networks, cellular tower connection and Wi-Fi hotspots.
• an option for enterprises that can't afford to install or lease fiber to connect
their facilities over a large campus or city.
- Last Mile
• Could establish wireless as an alternative to residential broadband
DSL/cable modem.
• Last-mile WMANs are suits for temporary networks, such as large
construction sites or areas where conventional network service is
disrupted.

31. Wireless Wide Area Networks(WWANs)
Typically cover large areas, such as between neighboring towns and
cities, or city and suburb.
Also called "wireless broadband" or "broadband wireless”.
Wireless WANs use cell towers to transmit a radio signal within a range of
several miles to a moving or stationary device.
There are 3 major wireless WAN technologies,
• GSM
• CDMA
• WiMAX - newer
Traditional cellular systems

32. Cellular network
Radio network distributed over land areas
called cells.
In a cellular network, each cell
characteristically uses a different set of
radio frequencies from all their immediate
neighboring cells to avoid any
interference.
When joined together these cells provide
radio coverage over a wide geographic
area.

33. Global Area Network(GAN)
A network used for supporting
mobile across an arbitrary
number of wireless LANs,
satellite coverage areas, etc.
The key challenge in mobile
communications is handing
off user communications from
one local coverage area to
the next.

34. Space network
 Established in the early 1980s to replace NASA's worldwide
network of ground tracking stations
 Used for communication between spacecraft.
 Space Network is operated 24 hours a day, seven days a week,
365 days per year.
 The Space Network consist of:
• A constellation of geosynchronous (Earth orbiting) satellites
named the Tracking Data Relay Satellite (TDRS)
• Ground systems that operate as a relay system between
satellites.
• Satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO) above 73 km
• Ground facilities

35. References
• ftp://ftp.iol.unh.edu/pub/bfc/UNH-IOL_BFC_Knowledgebase_Bridging.ppt
• http://web.mst.edu/~mobildat/wman/
• http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/wireless-mesh-network
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_mesh_network
• http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/wireless-mesh-network
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_LAN
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network#Wireless_MAN
• http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-wirelessman.htm
• http://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/txt_sn.html#
.U-cuLPldWN4

36. IPv4 and IPv6 Coexistence

37. Overview
Address space in IPv4 is running out and it will completely run out very
soon.
There are three strategies for IPv6 transition
• Dual Stack Network
 The original strategy
 Depends on sufficient IPv4 being available
• 6rd (Rapid Deploy)
 Improvement on 6to4 for SP customer deployment
 Activity of IETF Softwires Working Group
• Large Scale NAT (LSN)
 SP deploys large NAT boxes to do address and/or protocol translation
Functionalities and operational issues of this coexistence.
Potential scenarios of transition and recommendations for transition.

38. Why should we care of IPv4/IPv6 coexistence and
transition?

39. Is IPv4 really running out?
Yes !
• IANA IPv4 free pool ran out on 3rd February 2011
• RIR IPv4 free pool will run out soon after.
The runout gadgets and widgets are now watching when the RIR pools will
run out:
• inetcore.com/project/ipv4ec/index_en.html
• ipv6.he.net/statistics/

40. Strategies available for Service Providers
Do nothing
• Wait and see what competitors do
• Business not growing, so don’t care what happens
Extend life of IPv4
• Force customers to NAT
• Buy IPv4 address space on the marketplace
Deploy IPv6
• Dual-stack infrastructure
• IPv6 and NATed IPv4 for customers
• 6rd (Rapid Deploy) with native or NATed IPv4 for customers
• Or various other combinations of IPv6, IPv4 and NAT

41. Dual-stack network
Both IPv4 and IPv6 have been fully deployed across all the infrastructure
• Routing protocols handle IPv4 and IPv6
• Content, application, and services available on IPv4 and IPv6
End-users use dual-stack network transparently
• If DNS returns IPv6 address for domain name query, IPv6 transport is used
• If no IPv6 address returned, DNS is queried for IPv4 address, and IPv4
transport is used instead
It is envisaged that the Internet will operate dual stack for many years to come

42. Dual-stack network cont..
 Advantages
• Support ensures any-to-any
communications
• regardless of the versions of IP
 Disadvantages
• Double the communications processing
requirements of all of the network
resources.
• This leads to performance degradation
• IPv6 on existing IPv4 infrastructure
might cost extra in terms of hardware
changes

43. 6rd (Rapid Deploy)
6rd (Rapid Deploy) used where ISP infrastructure to customer is not IPv6
capable (eg IPv4-only BRAS)
• Customer has IPv4 Internet access either natively or via NAT
• Customer IPv6 address space based on ISP IPv4 block

44. 6rd (Rapid Deploy) cont..
Advantages
• The service provider has a relatively quick way of providing IPv6 to
their customer without deploying IPv6 across their infrastructure.
• Subscribers can readily get access to IPv6
• 6rd relay and CPE are becoming available from vendors
Disadvantages
• 6rd is not a long-term solution for transitioning to IPv6 – one further
transition step to remove the tunnels
• CPE needs to be upgraded to support 6rd
• The ISP has to deploy one or several 6rd termination devices
• If customer or SP uses NAT for IPv4, all NAT disadvantages are
inherited

45. Large Scale NAT (LSN)
Also known as Carrier-grade NAT (CGN)
Translates private IPv4 addresses into public IPv4 addresses.
CGN employs Network Address and Port Translation methods to
aggregate multiple private IPv4 addresses into fewer public IPv4
addresses.

46. Dual-Stack lite (DS-Lite)
was specified in RFC 6333, "Dual-Stack Lite Broadband Deployments
Following IPv4 Exhaustion", August 2011.
Technically DS-Lite involves more than just tunneling
But the IPv6 Forum includes it under the tunnel transition mechanism in
their training curriculum

47. DS-Lite cont..
Advantages
• The service provider is using IPv6 across its entire infrastructure,
avoiding the IPv4 depletion problem in the network.
• IPv6-only infrastructure in an ISP ensures that the ISP can carry on
scaling its infrastructure without dependency on IPv4 address resources.
• Consumers can transition from IPv4 to IPv6 without any requirement to
be aware of the differences between the protocols.
Disadvantages
• The service provider needs to buy, install, and run a CGN that supports
DS-Lite.
• The CGN must keep NAT44 states (please note that MAP is a promising
technology alleviating this drawback).

48. Functionalities and Operational Issues
Complexity of operation:
• Moderate in the case of a single network with two address families
Complexity of troubleshooting:
• Running two address families and/or tunnels is assumed to be more
complex
Breaks end-to-end connectivity in IPv4:
• Subscribers sharing a CGN will have little to no hurdles in their
communication
• Subscribers separated by one or several CGN will experience some
application issues

49. Potential scenarios
Most of the content and applications move to IPv6 only
Most of the content and applications are offered for IPv4 and IPv6
Most of the users move to IPv6 only
• Especially mobile operators offering LTE handsets in emerging
countries
No change (the contents/applications stay IPv4 and absence of pro-IPv6
regulation), SP customer expectations devolve to double-NAT
No change (the contents/applications stay IPv4) but SP customer
expectations do not devolve to double-NAT (or they are ready to pay for
peer-to-peer connectivity)
• Perhaps well established broadband markets like US or Europe

50. Recommendations
1. Start deploying IPv6 as long term strategy
2. Evaluate current addressing usage to understand if IPv4 to IPv4 NAT is
sufficient for transition period
3. Prepare a translation mechanism from the IPv4 Internet to the IPv6
Internet
4. Educate your user base on IPv6 introduction, the use cases and
troubleshooting

51. Summary

52. References
 www.potaroo.net/tools/ipv4/
 inetcore.com/project/ipv4ec/index_en.html
 ipv6.he.net/statistics/
 http://www.networkworld.com/article/2232181/cisco-
subnet/understanding-dual-stack-lite.html
 http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/products/collateral/ios-nx-os-
software/enterprise-ipv6-solution/whitepaper_c11-
698132.pdf
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier-grade_NAT