Global food insecurities, climate change, and population increments exert enormous pressure on the existing agro-food systems. The aforementioned constraints call for the adoption of novel and result-oriented scientific innovations. Nanotechnology is an emerging and promising innovation with a great potential to significantly and sustainably promote enhanced agricultural productivity and proliferate the efficiency of food systems. Nanotechnology is the manipulation of matter at atomic and molecular levels in the production of specialized microscale-based products or devices. The application of nanotechnology in agriculture encompasses; nutrition management, insect pest and disease control, precision farming, plant breeding, and waste management. On the other hand, nanotechnology is also being applied in all facets of food systems including; production, processing, transportation, and packaging. Despite the wide applicability of nanotechnologies, elevating concerns on their potential health and environmental risks continue to sway among consumers and policymakers. Furthermore, the absence of a defined and complete global regulatory standard and framework for nanotechnology utilization derail its wide adoption and acceptability. The main thrust of this review is to present in summary the numerous nanotechnological applications in agriculture and food industries paying particular attention to the current technological trends, potential benefits, associated risks, and the future outlook.

1. Nanotechnology Applications in Crop Production and Food Systems
Nanotechnology Applications in Crop Production and
Food Systems
*Noel Ndlovu1, Tatenda Mayaya2, Clemence Muitire3 and Norman Munyengwa4
1Department of Horticulture and Plant Sciences, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Jimma University, P.O.
Box 378, Jimma, Oromia, Ethiopia
2,3Crop Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zimbabwe, P. O. Box MP167, Mt Pleasant, Harare,
Zimbabwe.
4Department of Plant Biology and Physiology, University of Yaounde' I, P. O. Box 1937, Yaounde', Cameroon
Global food insecurities, climate change, and population increments exert enormous pressure on
the existing agro-food systems. The aforementioned constraints call for the adoption of novel and
result-oriented scientific innovations. Nanotechnology is an emerging and promising innovation
with a great potential to significantly and sustainably promote enhanced agricultural productivity
and proliferate the efficiency of food systems. Nanotechnology is the manipulation of matter at
atomic and molecular levels in the production of specialized microscale-based products or
devices. The application of nanotechnology in agriculture encompasses; nutrition management,
insect pest and disease control, precision farming, plant breeding, and waste management. On
the other hand, nanotechnology is also being applied in all facets of food systems including;
production, processing, transportation, and packaging. Despite the wide applicability of
nanotechnologies, elevating concerns on their potential health and environmental risks continue
to sway among consumers and policymakers. Furthermore, the absence of a defined and
complete global regulatory standard and framework for nanotechnology utilization derail its wide
adoption and acceptability. The main thrust of this review is to present in summary the numerous
nanotechnological applications in agriculture and food industries paying particular attention to
the current technological trends, potential benefits, associated risks, and the future outlook.
Keywords: Nanotechnology, Agro-food Systems, Food Insecurities, Climate Change, Scientific Innovations
INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology is the scientific study, creation, design,
manipulation, synthesis, and application of devices,
functional materials, and systems through controlling
matter at a nanometer scale (1–100 nm), and exploiting its
properties and novel phenomena at that scale
(Salamanca-Buentello et al., 2005). Nanotechnology
integrates a different range of applied sciences such as
chemistry, physics, biology, medicine and engineering to
produce materials possessing unique properties such as
high surface area, target site of action and slow release of
particular elements (Ghidan and Antary, 2019;Huang et
al., 2015;Joshi et al., 2019;Kalpana Sastry et al.,
2012;Khan and Rizvi, 2014;Nikalje, 2015). Research
studies are currently taking heed of the multifaceted
attributes of nanotechnologies and exploiting them for
enhancing crop production and improving food systems.
The agricultural industry is always changing thereby
creating both opportunities and challenges for the present
and future generations (Sabourin and Ayande, 2015). At
the present moment, climate change is negatively affecting
crop productivity across the world as evidenced by the
negative slopping trend in crop yields. The application of
nanotechnologies in agriculture can promote the
realization of food security in light of the projected
increments in the global population. Meetoo (2011)
asserted that, nanotechnology provides a sustainable
solution to agricultural production constraints in natural
*Corresponding Author: Noel Ndlovu; Department of
Horticulture and Plant Sciences, College of Agriculture and
Veterinary Medicine, Jimma University, P.O. Box 378,
Jimma, Oromia, Ethiopia. Email: noelndlovujr@gmail.com
Review Article
Vol. 7(1), pp. 624-634, January, 2020. © www.premierpublishers.org, ISSN: 2167-0449
International Journal of Plant Breeding and Crop Science

2. Nanotechnology Applications in Crop Production and Food Systems
Ndlovu et al. 625
resource depleted communities. Sabourin and Ayande
(2015) stated that, the adoption of nanotechnology can
promote development and transformation in the food
sector, enhance agricultural productivity, and industrial
economic growth by a 30% margin (Average: US$0.9
trillion). The high potential nature of nanotechnology
render it more suitable for less-developed countries and
economies (Rashidi and Khosravi-Darani, 2011).
Furthermore, the adoption of nanotechnology can increase
the competitiveness of the agricultural industry and boost
its annual growth rate (Sabourin and Ayande, 2015). The
main thrust of nanotechnologies in agriculture is to
minimize the use of pesticides and fertilizers; to reduce
nutrient losses during fertilization and; to increase overall
yield margins of cultivated crops through optimal nutrient
management (Fawzy et al., 2018; Abobatta, 2018).
Prominent industry players such as Syngenta, BASF,
Monsanto, Cargill, and Bayer Crop Science are currently
undertaking research and commercialization of nano-
derived agrochemicals and seeds (Lyons, 2010).
The rapid advances in nanotechnology are also
transforming many food science domains, especially
processing, functionality, packaging, safety, storage,
transportation aspects of food (Bajpai et al., 2018) and
other marketing facilities (Joshi et al., 2019).
Nanotechnologies are currently shifting the face of the
food industry by reducing losses from food spoilage,
creating new business possibilities (nano-products) and
providing safety assurance platforms. The food industry
heavyweights (for instance; Altria, H.J. Heinz, Nestle and
Unilever) have been investing heavily in research and
development of nanoproducts over the past years (Ozimek
et al., 2010). This recorded interest is a true testament to
the perceived potential benefits of using
nanotechnologies.
However, the future impacts of nanotechnology to
agriculture, health and safety is of prime interest and
debate among the concerned stakeholders especially
upon mirroring on similar issues and concerns raised on
some previously implemented emerging technologies
(Chung et al., 2017; Roco et al., 2011). The potential risk
to human health, animals and the environment should be
assessed and prioritized (Dimitrijevic et al., 2015). Meetoo
(2011) asserted that, no regulatory or statutory standards
have been put in place on the global market to ensure
proper labeling of all food products containing
nanoparticles. Despite the concerns on the potential risk of
some nanomaterials, nanotechnology remains a
sustainable and a significant alternative in bringing change
and increasing the efficiency of agricultural and food
systems (Elemike et al., 2019).
Objectives of this Review
a) To outline the applications of nanotechnologies in the
agricultural and food industries, and;
b) To assess the adoption implications and future potential
of nanotechnology in agricultural and food systems.
Application of Nanotechnology in Agriculture
Agricultural applications of nanotechnology have been
widely reported via numerous platforms over the years.
Joshi et al. (2019) highlighted that, the main purpose of
nanotechnology in agriculture is to minimize the volume of
spread chemicals, reduce nutrient losses during
fertilization, and increase the crop yield through nutrient
and pest management. Additionally, nanotechnology
enhances the performance and acceptability of agricultural
technologies by increasing their effectiveness and safety
in use (Iavicoli et al., 2017;Rawat et al., 2018;Srilatha,
2011).
Nutrient Management
Nanotechnology is utilized for nutrient management in
cropping systems through nanotechnological applications
such as nanofertilizers, nanocoating, nanoescapsulation,
nanotubes, growth regulators and zerovalent particles.
Mikkelsen (2018) underscored that, nanofertilizers are
classified into three main classes namely: (a) nanoscale
fertilizers (nanomaterials containing nutrients); (b)
nanoscale coating (nanoparticles coated or loaded on
traditional fertilizers i.e. nanocoating) and; (c) nanoscale
additives (nanoscale additives mixed with traditional
fertilizers). Nanofertilizers have a high surface area and
high supply at an active site which increase their
absorption rates by plants and ultimately helps in
minimizing environmental pollution (El-Ghamry et al.,
2018;Joshi et al., 2019). Nanofertilizers (e.g., zeolites and
nanoclays) slowly release nutrients throughout the life
cycle of the crop thereby reducing the risks of leaching,
adsorption, surface runoff and decomposition (Joshi et al.,
2019). Zeolites are naturally occurring minerals that have
a honeycomb-like layered crystal structure which can be
loaded with macronutrients and essential micronutrients
needed for plant growth (Joshi et al., 2019). The slow
mineral release nature of zeolites enhances the nutrient
use efficiency rates of crops. Essential micronutrients may
also be foliar applied through nanotechnology.
Cieschi et al. (2019) conducted an iron availability
experiment with three iron-humic nanofertilizers (57Fe-
NFs) on a calcareous soil pot trial under growth chamber
conditions. The research compared the iron nutrition
contribution of the three hybrid nanomaterials in iron-
deficient soybean plants. The nanofertilizers allowed
continuous iron uptake and exhibited high shoot fresh
weight. Janmohammadi et al. (2017) also carried out an
experiment to compare the effects of nanostructured
fertilizers (Mn, Zn, Fe) and farmyard manure (Zero (M1),
20 (M2) t/ha) on agronomical attributes and yield of
common sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). The study
exhibited the best performance levels from the nano-
chelated Zn and manure combination treatments.

3. Nanotechnology Applications in Crop Production and Food Systems
Int. J. Plant Breed. Crop Sci. 626
Furthermore, Fe and Zn application increased achene
yield, oil concentration and the harvest index of sunflower.
Furthermore, Kale and Gawade (2016) evaluated the
effect of combining N (15%): P (15%): K (15%) and ZnO
nanoparticles (ZnO NP) on brinjal (Solanum melongena L)
growth attributes. The research concluded that, the
combination increased yield and biomass of brinjal by 38%
and 21% respectively.
Nanocoating is one of the most common strategies
utilized in nano-nutrient supplementation. In this
procedure, traditional fertilizers are coated with
nanoparticles to enhance their stability in the soil and
absorption coefficients by plants. Nanocoated fertilizers
have low dissolution rates in the soil (Duhan et al., 2017)
which increases their soil lifespan and availability for plant
uptake. A good example of a nanocoated fertilizer is the
Slow-soluble Released fertilizers (SRFs). SRFs are made
by coating the traditional fertilizer granules with
nanomaterials which promote the slow release of nutrients
for plant uptake (Fawzy et al., 2018). Nanocoating nitrogen
and phosphate fertilizers will be beneficial in meeting the
crop and soil demands (Duhan et al., 2017). The release
of nutrients as per crop requirements can also be regulated
through the use of nanotubes (Fawzy et al., 2018).
Nanotubes are organic or inorganic atomic sheets
arranged in a tube structure which can be loaded with plant
nutrients.
Nanoencapsulation is the technology of loading liquid,
solid or gas nanoparticles in a secondary matrix to form
nanocapsules. Nanoecapsulation plays a pivotal role in
protecting the environment by reducing evaporation and
leaching of harmful substances (Duhan et al., 2017).
Nanoencapsulated fertilizers are characterized by their
slow release of nutrients for plant uptake properties (as
shown in Fig 1 and 3). Chitosan and Carrageenan are
secondary nano-materials that are normally used in
encapsulating fertilizers, pesticides or herbicides. Duhan
et al. (2017) highlighted that, the addition of nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium was found to increase the
stability of the chitosan-polymethacrylic acid (CS-PMAA)
colloidal suspension.
Nanotechnology can be utilized for ensuring the availability
of ions in plant utilizable forms and at rates suitable for
plant growth (Mukhopadhyay, 2014). Mukhopadhyay
(2014) explained that, the ion adsorption, surface area,
cation exchange capacity (CEC), and complexation
functions of clays might be multiplied further when brought
to a nanoscale. The ability of soils to hold on to nutrients is
enhanced by the increase in CEC. Furthermore, the
application of zerovalent particles of iron with high
adsorption affinity for organic compounds can also be
harnessed for soil remediation in pesticides contaminated
arable lands (Mukhopadhyay, 2014). Furthermore,
compounds of Titanium and Silicon nanoparticles have
been found to enhance the nitrate reductase action and
the absorption capacity to water and fertilizer in soybean
plants (Ali et al., 2018).
Plant regulators such as nano-5 and Nano-Gro are also
being produced to enhance the hormonal effects in plants
(Joshi et al., 2019). Syngenta has been selling a nano-
formulated plant growth regulator under the trade name
Primo MAXX for several years (Miller and Senjen, 2008).
Plant hormones are directly involved in all development
processes and play a role in the ability of plants to absorb
nutrients from the soil. However, the absorption efficiency
and overall effects of nanomaterials on the metabolic
functions and growth vary among plants (Duhan et al.,
2017).
Fig 1: A Schematic Illustration of the Nutrient/Pesticide/
Herbicide Controlled Release Mechanism.
Adapted from: Duhan et al. (2017)
Precision Agriculture
Precision agriculture or farming is the development and
utilization of wireless networking and miniaturization of
sensors for assessing, monitoring, and controlling
agricultural practices (Shang et al., 2019). It utilizes
computers, GPS and remote sensing devices in
measuring highly-localized environmental conditions and
aid in determining crop growth efficiency and existing
problems (Duhan et al., 2017). Precision farming
decreases agricultural wastes thereby participating in
minimizing environmental pollution (Anjum and Pradhan,
2018; Gul et al., 2014). Joshi et al. (2019) asserted that,
precision agriculture will continue to benefit immensely
from nanotechnology through enhanced nutrient
absorption by plants, efficient and targeted utilization of
inputs and disease detection. The application of
nanomaterials in precision agriculture enhances the
effectiveness of operations. Nanomaterials positively
influence the level of crop productivity by enhancing the
efficiency of agri-inputs utilization through site-targeted
and controlled nutrient delivery facilitation (Shang et al.,
2019). Joshi et al. (2019) stressed that; the integration of
nanomaterials, remote sensing and the global positioning
system (GPS) could hasten the detection of insect pest
infestations or drought and nutrient deficiency stress
incidences based on spectral images. Furthermore, the
use of nanosensors in precision agriculture and

4. Nanotechnology Applications in Crop Production and Food Systems
Ndlovu et al. 627
nanomaterials for site-specific water and soil conservation
(e.g. Nano and Geohumus) helps in the efficient utilization
of natural resources (Joshi et al., 2019).
Nanonetworks are also being used in advanced precision
farming projects for monitoring and detection of various
field-based profiles (Fig 2). A nanonetwork is a group of
inter-connected nanomachines assembled to perform
computing, sensing, data storage, and actuation.
Nanonetworks gives automatic alerts on the input status or
profile for efficient usage of fertilizers, pesticides, and
water (Marchiol, 2018). The alerts provide a significant
base for timely and accurate decision-making in
sustainable crop production (Marchiol, 2018).
Furthermore, wireless nanosensors are also being utilized
to monitor crop disease incidences and growth rates,
nutrient use efficiency, and field environmental conditions
(He et al., 2019).
Fig 2: Nano-network System for Plant Monitoring
Operations. Source:Marchiol (2018)
Pest and Disease Management
Nanotechnologies have been incorporated in pest (i.e.
insects and weeds) and plant disease management
research schemes targeting the timely detection and
control in major crops. Nanomaterials of different forms
have been shown to be efficient in pest and disease
management (Anand and Bhagat, 2019). Nanotechnology
in crop pest and disease management is applied via two
mechanisms namely: (a) nanoparticles used as the main
control agent (complete pesticides or part formulations), or
(b) nanoparticles used as carriers of traditional pesticides
(Worrall et al., 2018). Nanopesticides may be
encapsulated in nanoparticles (Fig 3) to ensure the
controlled release and, nano-emulsions for good control of
pests (for example the Allosperse Delivery System),
adjuvant and Nano revolution-2 (Joshi et al., 2019).
Nanomaterials such as silver ions, polymeric
nanoparticles, iron oxide and gold nanoparticles are
currently used as pesticides (Ali et al., 2018). Silver
nanoparticles (AgNPs) serves a dual purpose of plant
disease management and plant growth enhancement
(Anand and Bhagat, 2019). Nanosilver has a strong
bactericidal and a broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties
and controls spore-producing fungal pathogens (Agrawal
and Rathore, 2014).
Nanopesticides have high permeability implying that less
volume is required per application which ultimately
translates to reduced costs (Fawzy et al., 2018).
Nanopesticides also increase the wettability and
dispersion of pesticide formulations thereby decreasing
chemical runoff and unwanted pesticide movement
(Handford et al., 2014). Microencapsulation (Fig 1) has
been employed as a reliable tool for hydrophobic
pesticides since it increases their dispersion in aqueous
mediums and induces a controlled-release profile of the
active compounds (He et al., 2019;Sekhon, 2014). The
insecticide ethiprole contains Polylactic acid and
polycaprolactone nanospheres as encapsulation agents
(Sekhon, 2014). Bioefficacy studies of nanoescapsulated
Immidacropid (1-(6 chloro-3-pyridinylmethyl)-N-nitro
imidazolidin-2-ylideneamine) was conducted on whitefly
(Bemisiatabaci Gennadius) and stem fly
(Melanagromyzasojae Zehntmer) and exhibited better
pest control in soybean (Sekhon, 2014). On the other
hand, research has also reported that, herbicide
penetration through tissues and cuticles can be enhanced
through the use of nanocapsules which allow the slow and
constant release of the active compounds (Sekhon, 2014).
Fig 3: (a) Nanocapsule Model with macro/microelements.
(b) Deposition after leaf-spray treatment.
Source: Marchiol (2018)
Nanomaterials have been reported to control several
diseases including powdery mildew in major crops such as
pumpkin. Research experiments have also shown that
fungal hyphae growth and conidial germination are
inhibited significantly by nanomaterials especially silver
and copper nanoparticles (Gul et al., 2014). Chitosan
nanoparticles are a special product of nanotechnology

5. Nanotechnology Applications in Crop Production and Food Systems
Int. J. Plant Breed. Crop Sci. 628
which is being used for seed treatment and as a
biopesticide for fungal infections (Duhan et al., 2017).
Furthermore, nano-coating seeds with elemental forms of
Mn, Zn, Pt, Pa, Ag, and Au protect seeds from pathogen
infestations (Agrawal and Rathore, 2014). Studies have
also reported that, small-sized particles of sulfur
nanoparticles (35 nm) have a high efficacy in preventing
fungal growth in tomato, potato, grape and apple from
different diseases in organic farming (Joshi et al., 2019).
Furthermore, the use of capric oxide in controlling tomato
diseases achieved 95% efficiency with very low
concentrations as shown in experiments documented by
Fawzy et al. (2018). Studies conducted on maize showed
that, the application of nanosilica (20–40 nm) improved
resistance against Fusarium oxysporum and Aspergillus
niger (Duhan et al., 2017).
Spraying nanosilica has a positive influence on the feeding
preference of Spodoptera littoralis on tomato plants
thereby enhancing the resistance levels of plants (Gul et
al., 2014). The spray affects the reproduction potential of
insect females thereby promoting insect population density
reductions (Gul et al., 2014). The effect of nano-glycerin
has also been shown to be superior to that of normal
glycerol in controlling pests over a short period of time in
numerous crops (Fawzy et al., 2018). Nanoherbicides are
currently being developed to offer a significant remedy to
the problems in the management of perennial weeds and
weed seed banks (Joshi et al., 2019). An example of a
commercialized herbicide product developed through
nanotechnology is Karate® ZEON which is a quick-release
microencapsulated product composed of an active
ingredient called lambda-cyhalothrin (Agrawal and
Rathore, 2014).
Nanomaterials can be used in identifying pest and disease
infestation in plants even before farmer identification
(Chakraborty et al., 2015). Nano-based virus diagnostics
such as the multiplexed diagnostic kit can detect exact
strains of a virus and other pathogens (Joshi et al., 2019).
The use of nanosensors which can detect pathogen levels
as low as parts-per-billion (Joshi et al., 2019) has improved
the efficiency of plant-disease detection experiments.
Specifically, silver nanoparticles have recently been used
effectively for detecting phytopathogens on seed and soil
surfaces (Joshi et al., 2019). This timely detection and
identification of phytopathogens is of greater importance in
the control of plant diseases.
Agronomy and Environmental Sensitivity
Nanotechnology is also opening new avenues with a
greater potential for enhancing agricultural productivity
and promoting environmental sensitivity. Several research
studies have presented the possibility of employing
nanotechnologies in hydroponics production systems of
vegetables and fruits (Ali et al., 2018). Hydroponics is a
production system which encompasses the cultivation of
plants in a soil-less media composed of nutrient-water
solutions. The applications of nanoparticles in nutrient
delivery, pest and disease control shape-up success and
enhances the efficiency of a hydroponics system.
Researchers have also carried experiments on increasing
seed germination through imbibing seeds in nano-
encapsulations containing specific bacterial strains of
Pseudomonas spp (Joshi et al., 2019). The experiments
led to the development of Smart Seed varieties which are
programmed to detect when the right conditions are
available for germination (Joshi et al., 2019). Furthermore,
the application of titanium dioxide (TiO2) on major food
crops has been shown to promote plant growth, minimize
disease severity and increase yield by a 30% margin
(Agrawal and Rathore, 2014). Recent studies have begun
exploring the utilization of nanoparticles in photosynthesis
as synthetic probes in augmenting how plants use light
(Swift et al., 2019).
Nanomaterials are also being used extensively in
agricultural waste recycling initiatives across the globe.
The Central Research Institute of Cotton in India
developed a technology for the production of nano-
cellulose from agricultural residues. Scaling-up recycling
initiatives should be on the frontline in the fight against
environmental degradation and pollution. Nanotechnology
is also promoting environmental remediation through the
use of magnetic nanoparticles and nanofibers. Magnetic
nanoparticles facilitate the removal of soil contaminants
such as Hg, Zn and Pb (Joshi et al., 2019). Nanofibers are
utilized in encapsulating chemical pesticides, for
preventing the scattering of chemical components in the
environment and ultimately reduce water and soil pollution
(Mousavi and Rezaei, 2011). Moreover, nano-filtration and
nano-particles are being utilized in providing a high
possibility of refining and eliminating microbial
contaminants in water with great speed and accuracy
(Mousavi and Rezaei, 2011).
Genetic Manipulation of Crops
Nano-biotechnology provide a set of tools and
technological platforms for improving agricultural
productivity through genetic modification of plants and
transportation of gene and drug molecules to specific
locations at a cellular level (Ali et al., 2018). The
incorporation of nanogenomics-based methods in plant
breeding has enhanced precision in trait selection and
gene transfer, and reduced the overall breeding time
requirements (Abd-Elsalam and Alghuthaymi, 2014).
Nanosensors have also been used in reducing the levels
of pollen contamination on wind-pollinated plant species
(Agrawal and Rathore, 2014). Nanogenetic manipulation
through the use of nanoparticles, nanocapsules and
nanofibers (Agrawal and Rathore, 2014) is providing a
sustainable approach to crop improvement initiatives.
Nanotechnology in plant breeding, is being utilized for
plant DNA transfer in breeding for insect-pest resistance

6. Nanotechnology Applications in Crop Production and Food Systems
Ndlovu et al. 629
schemes (Duhan et al., 2017). Nanoparticles provide a
source of protection to the DNA from enzymatic attack
during its transfer into and within plant cells (Joldersma
and Liu, 2018). Experiments exhibited that the plasmid
DNA can be successfully transferred using the gene gun
method with gold-capped nanoparticles in maize and
tobacco tissues (Agrawal and Rathore, 2014).
Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs)/DNA complexes
have been shown to have enhanced transfection efficiency
(Mustafa and Zaied, 2019). Furthermore, MSNs can be
used in delivering foreign genetic material (transformation)
and in carrying effectors (estradiol) which induces gene
expression (Mustafa and Zaied, 2019). Additionally,
nanobarcodes are utilized as identification tags in the
multiplexed analysis of gene expression for environmental
stress resistance (Duhan et al., 2017). Nanobarcode
particles are developed through semi-automated
electroplating of inert metals (e.g., gold and silver) (Duhan
et al., 2017).
Application of Nanotechnology in Food Industries
The application of nanotechnology in agro-food systems
possess tremendous benefits to the society (Meetoo,
2011). Singh et al. (2017) asserted that, the applications
of nanotechnologies in food industry encompasses two
main facets namely; food nanostructured ingredients (i.e.
food processing, nutrient enhancement, and packaging)
and food nanosensing (i.e. pathogen and freshness
detection). The application of nanotechnology in food
systems include nanosensors, nano based-food additives,
nanocapsules, nanopackaging and nanobased smart
delivery systems (Rashidi and Khosravi-Darani, 2011).
Nanotechnology enables researchers to manipulate the
existing food industry in ensuring product safety thereby
creating a culture of healthy and nutritional food
consumption (Rashidi and Khosravi-Darani, 2011).
Food Packaging
Oxygen is one of the major problematic factors in food
packaging, since it can promote or facilitate spoilage and
discoloration of food products (Joshi et al., 2019; Mousavi
and Rezaei, 2011). The inherent impermeability of
polymers to gases render polymer silicate nano-
composites more ideal substitutes for packaging (Rashidi
and Khosravi-Darani, 2011). Nanoparticles have been
used to develop a new plastic-type that prevents the
penetration of oxygen (Joshi et al., 2019). These plastics
contain nanoparticles arranged in a zigzag film (Fig 4)
which prohibits the penetration of oxygen (Mousavi and
Rezaei, 2011). This approach provides a smart food
packaging alternative for shelf-life optimization and
reduction of losses arising from spoilages. The technology
is also offering cost-effective methodologies for storage
and distribution of agricultural products (Rashidi and
Khosravi-Darani, 2011). Moreover, the utilization of
nanoparticles in these plastics enhances the heat
resistance and mechanical properties in food packaging
thereby increasing the shelf life through its gas or water
vapor permeability influences (Rashidi and Khosravi-
Darani, 2011).
Fig 4: The effect of nano-plates in packaging material.
Source: Wyser et al. (2016)
The first nano-composite was produced by interacting an
organic substance such as a protein, lipid or peptide with
an inorganic substance (for instance calcium carbonate)
and form a toughened material (Rashidi and Khosravi-
Darani, 2011). Nanoclay is widely used for the packaging
of food due to its thermal and mechanical barrier
properties, and cost-effectiveness (He et al., 2019).
Research has shown that, the addition of montmorillonite
(3-5%) into the production of nano-composites make
plastics lighter and stronger with increased thermal
stability (Rashidi and Khosravi-Darani, 2011). It also
increases barrier properties against carbon dioxide (CO2),
oxygen (O2), moisture, and volatiles (Rashidi and
Khosravi-Darani, 2011). Bayer Polymers Company has
developed and commercialized the Durethan (KU2-2601)
packaging film which prevents drying and protects against
oxygen and moisture build-up in food products (Pradhan
et al., 2017).
Food Processing and Safety
Nanotechnology enables food and beverage industries to
alter and manipulate their products for more effective
nutrient delivery so as to specifically target the
enhancement of nutritional and health statuses of
consumers (Handford et al., 2014). Bajpai et al. (2018)
highlighted that, Nanotechnology enhances the
functionality of food either by increasing nano-sized
nutritional supplements or by the elimination of chemical
toxicants. However, some food products are known to
naturally contain nanomaterials. For instance, the natural
nano-selenium content in green tea has numerous health
benefits (Bajpai et al., 2018). On the other hand,
nanomaterials can be developed to act as colour or flavour
additives, preservatives, or food supplement carriers (i.e.
nanoemulsion and nanoencapsulation) (He et al., 2019).
Nanomaterials are also used for the edible coating to
protect against cosmetic, nutritional quality and post-
harvest losses (He et al., 2019). Nanolaminates are
employed in the preparation of edible films and coatings
for the food industry including vegetables, fruits, meats,

7. Nanotechnology Applications in Crop Production and Food Systems
Int. J. Plant Breed. Crop Sci. 630
candies, chocolate, bakery products, and French fries
(Rashidi and Khosravi-Darani, 2011). Nanolaminates
consist of two or more physically or chemically bonded
nanomaterials layers are also utilized in the food industry
(Rashidi and Khosravi-Darani, 2011).
Some signs depicted on frozen food products to give the
consumer an insight on the freshness level of the product
are developed using nanotechnology. In frozen poultry,
three signs are used namely green (fresh product and safe
for consumption), orange (safe for consumption) and red
(not safe for consumption) (Fawzy et al., 2018). Suresh
Neethirajan (University of Manitoba, Winnipeg) developed
sensors for early detection of storage grain spoilage using
microelectronics and nanotechnology (Mousavi and
Rezaei, 2011). Nanosensors used in plastic packaging
detects gases produced during food spoilage allowing the
packaging material to change its color as an alert to the
consumer (Pal, 2017). Nanotechnology has also seen the
development of sensors that can detect Escherichia coli
contamination in food packages (Pal, 2017). Nanosensors
are also utilized in the detection of gases, toxins (including
pesticide residues) or pathogens in packaged foods
(Rashidi and Khosravi-Darani, 2011). Additionally,
nanomaterials have been documented to increase the
shelf-life of fruits. Nano-kutuzan is sprayed on strawberries
to increase the shelf-life by 20-28 days without mold
development (Fawzy et al., 2018).
Nano-encapsulated active ingredients such as vitamins
and fatty acids are presently being sold commercially for
utilization in processing and preservation of meats,
cheese, beverages and other foods (Miller and Senjen,
2008). Silver nanomaterials have also been reported to
have antimicrobial properties in the food production and
processing systems (Joshi et al., 2019). Nanotechnology
may be utilized for rapid identification of nutrient
deficiencies and food pathogen levels (Rashidi and
Khosravi-Darani, 2011). Oxonica Inc (a United States of
America registered company) developed nano-barcodes
visible only with a microscope as an anti-counterfeiting
measure on their products (Alfadul and Elneshwy, 2010).
This initiative provides a reliable approach in ensuring
consumer awareness on company products and also acts
as a safety and control measure against counterfeiting.
FUTURE OUTLOOK: NANOTECHNOLOGY ADOPTION
Opportunities and Potential of Nanotechnologies
Nanotechnology has a great potential in revolutionizing the
21st agricultural (Joseph and Morrison, 2006) and food
industries (Hosseini et al., 2010; Spandana, 2016). The
transformative potential of nanotechnology may be
heightened further through increased media coverage
alongside other scientific technologies such as
biotechnology, physics, and chemistry (Rashidi and
Khosravi-Darani, 2011). The beneficial sides of consuming
food products derived from nanotechnology need to be
fully explained to the ultimate consumers or beneficiaries
(Meetoo, 2011). Awareness of the benefits of such
products will increase their global adoption rates and
market shares. The absence of established special
regulations on nanotechnology utilization in food
production and processing (Rashidi and Khosravi-Darani,
2011) is a limiting factor to its acceptability by the general
populace. In the United States of America, the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) traditionally regulates many
products composed of particulate materials (Rashidi and
Khosravi-Darani, 2011). However, at the present moment
no policy frameworks and enforcing institutions have been
established to oversee the production and marketing of
nanotechnologies. The establishment of a specific
regulation framework on nanotechnology will boost its
consumer adoption levels. Dimitrijevic et al. (2015) alluded
that, the implementation of a regulatory framework and
good governance will further promote the acceptability and
functionality of nanotechnology.
Fig 5: Opportunity Identification in Agro-food Industry. Source: Handford et al. (2014)

8. Nanotechnology Applications in Crop Production and Food Systems
Ndlovu et al. 631
Roco et al. (2011) underscored that, nanotechnology-
enabled products are impacting the overall marketplace
landscape as exhibited by its estimated economic value of
$254 billion worldwide. It is, therefore, rightly placed to
positively impact the agricultural industry through
enhanced business resource possibilities in the next
decade (Sabourin and Ayande, 2015). Nanotechnology is
participating in enhancing food security (Muller et al.,
2017), nutrient absorption by plants, pathogen detection,
flavour and nutrition (Rashidi and Khosravi-Darani, 2011).
Researchers in Iran achieved a remarkable milestone
fostering environmental sustainability by developing a
nano-organic iron-chelated fertilizer (Sekhon, 2014). It
also has future potential applications which include
nanodelivery of veterinary products in fish food,
antibacterial surfaces fish food and nanosensors for water
pathogens detection (Sabourin and Ayande, 2015).
Risks Associated with Nanotechnology Adoption
The increased application and utilization of
nanotechnology in agriculture and food systems over the
course of the past decades has attracted public attention
and generated elevating concerns (He et al., 2019). The
general public continues to raise questions pertaining to
the safety of such technologies on their well-being and that
of the environment. Environmental health concerns arising
are directly hinged on the interaction of nanoparticles used
as nano-pesticides, nanoherbicides, nanofertilizer, and the
immobilized nanosensors (He et al., 2019). The potential
risks associated with direct exposure to nanoparticles are
not well established and fully understood (Berekaa, 2015;
Meetoo, 2011). The elevating concerns regarding their
fate, bioavailability, transport, and nanomaterials limits the
inclination to adopt and accept such technologies (Mishra
et al., 2017). The environmental fate and behavior of
nanomaterials are largely dependent on their
physicochemical properties (He et al., 2019). Predicting
the behavior and fate of these nanomaterials is limited by
the complexity and dynamism of environmental conditions
(He et al., 2019). Researchers are therefore presented
with a mammoth task of providing clarity on the subject
matter.
Fig 6: Benefits Vs Potential Risks of Adopting Nanotechnology. Source: Handford et al. (2014)

9. Nanotechnology Applications in Crop Production and Food Systems
Int. J. Plant Breed. Crop Sci. 632
A wide research gap exists on the potential health risks
associated with the consumption of food products
containing nanoparticles (Meetoo, 2011). Handford et al.
(2014) outlined potential risks associated with nano-food
consumption in a schematic illustration shown in Fig 6. It
is therefore imperative to establish research schemes
targeting the toxicity and health risks associated with the
consumption of nanofoods. Toxicity studies on the effects
of nanoparticles on the environment and health safety can
significantly influence consumer acceptability levels
(Ziarati et al., 2018). Furthermore, the continued
development of new research protocols and the
implementation of different analytical techniques (for
instance microscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and
magnetic resonance imaging) can considerably contribute
to understanding the plant-nanomaterial interactions
(Fraceto et al., 2016). Future studies should, therefore,
focus on filling the research gap on the toxicity of
nanomaterial (to mammal cells, tissues or organs) and the
migration of nanoparticles to food; environmental or
degradation fate; nanomaterials bioaccumulation and their
impact on ecosystems (He et al., 2019). Moreover,
developers should collaborate with regulators, risk
assessors and researchers in all processes of product
development to ensure safety procedures are observed
(Dimitrijevic et al., 2015).
CONCLUSION
The application of nanotechnology in agriculture and food
systems can contribute immensely to livelihood
sustainability and food security. The major contribution of
nanotechnology in agriculture is realized in nutrient
management, precision farming, insect pest and disease
management, agronomy and crop improvement schemes.
Interestingly, nanotechnology is utilized across the whole
operating systems of the food industry. However, at the
present moment, development and advancement of
nanotechnologies are mainly focusing on its beneficial
effects with little attention being placed on nano-toxicology
(Ziarati et al., 2018). Furthermore, no regulatory standards
have been established to govern the use of nanomaterials.
This is currently acting as a barrier to the outright adoption
and acceptance of nanotechnology by the general public.
Conclusively, the establishment of a regulatory framework
encompassing; particle size, measurement, and range,
physicochemical and processing property specifications,
safety and risks can help in bridging the knowledge gap
and bringing closure to the consumers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to record their gratitude to the reviewers
and the editorial team of this journal for improving the
quality of this paper.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors of this article declare no conflict of interest.
AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTIONS
Authors conceived the study and equally participated in
designing and drafting of the manuscript. The authors
proof-read and approved the final draft of the manuscript.
REFERENCES
Abd-Elsalam, K.A., Alghuthaymi, M.A. (2014).
Nanodiagnostic Tools in Plant Breeding. J. Plant
Pathol. Microbiol. 5, 2. https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-
7471.1000e107
Abobatta, W.F. (2018). Nanotechnology Application in
Agriculture: Mini Review. Acta Sci. Agric. 2, 99–102.
Agrawal, S., Rathore, P. (2014). Nanotechnology Pros and
Cons to Agriculture: A Review. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol.
Appl. Sci. 3, 43–55.
Alfadul, S.M., Elneshwy, A.A. (2010). Use of
nanotechnology in food processing, packaging and
safety – review. Afr. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev. 10, 2719–
2739. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajfand.v10i6.58068
Ali, S., Shafique, O., Mahmood, T., Hanif, M.A., Ahmed, I.,
Khan, B.A. (2018). A Review about Perspectives of
Nanotechnology in Agriculture. Pak. J. Agric. Res. 31,
116–121. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjar/2018/31
.2.116.121
Anand, R., Bhagat, M. (2019). Silver nanoparticles
(AgNPs): as nanopesticides and nanofertilizers. MOJ
Biol. Med. 4, 19–20. https://doi.org/10.15406/mojbm.
2019.04.00107
Anjum, M., Pradhan, S.N. (2018). Application of
nanotechnology in precision farming: A review. Int. J.
Chem. Stud. 6, 755–760.
Bajpai, V.K., Kamle, M., Shukla, S., Mahato, D.K.,
Chandra, P., Hwang, S.K., Kumar, P., Huh, Y.S., Han,
Y.-K. (2018). Prospects of using nanotechnology for
food preservation, safety, and security. J. Food Drug
Anal. 26, 1201–1214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.
2018.06.011
Berekaa, M.M. (2015). Nanotechnology in Food Industry;
Advances in Food processing, Packaging and Food
Safety. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci. 4, 345–357.
Chakraborty, S., Chowdhury, A., Chakraborty, S. (2015).
Review Article Nanotechnology - The Mantra of Present
and Future in Agriculture and Food. EC Agric. 2, 401–
412.
Chung, I.-M., Rajakumar, G., Gomathi, T., Park, S.-K.,
Kim, S.-H., Thiruvengadam, M. (2017).
Nanotechnology for human food: Advances and
perspective. Front. Life Sci. 10, 63–72. https://doi.org/
10.1080/21553769.2017.1365775

10. Nanotechnology Applications in Crop Production and Food Systems
Ndlovu et al. 633
Cieschi, M.T., Polyakov, A.Y., Lebedev, V.A., Volkov,
D.S., Pankratov, D.A., Veligzhanin, A.A., Perminova,
I.V., Lucena, J.J. (2019). Eco-Friendly Iron-Humic
Nanofertilizers Synthesis for the Prevention of Iron
Chlorosis in Soybean (Glycine max) Grown in
Calcareous Soil. Front. Plant Sci. 10, 17.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.00413
Dimitrijevic, M., Karabasil, N., Boskovic, M., Teodorovic,
V., Vasilev, D., Djordjevic, V., Kilibarda, N., Cobanovic,
N. (2015). Safety Aspects of Nanotechnology
Applications in Food Packaging. Procedia Food Sci. 5,
57–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profoo.2015.09.015
Duhan, J.S., Kumar, R., Kumar, N., Kaur, P., Nehra, K.,
Duhan, S. (2017). Nanotechnology: The new
perspective in precision agriculture. Biotechnol. Rep.
15, 11–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.btre.2017.03.002
Elemike, E., Uzoh, I., Onwudiwe, D., Babalola, O. (2019).
The Role of Nanotechnology in the Fortification of Plant
Nutrients and Improvement of Crop Production. Appl.
Sci. 9, 499. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9030499
El-Ghamry, A., El-Ramady, H., Mosa, A., Alshaal, T.
(2018). Nanofertilizers vs. Biofertilizers: New Insights.
Environ. Biodivers. Soil Secur. 2, 40–50.
https://doi.org/10.21608/jenvbs.2018.3880.1029
Fawzy, Z.F., Yunsheng, L., Shedeed, S.I., El-Bassiony,
A.M. (2018). Nanotechnology in Agriculture - Current
and Future Situation. Res. Rev. J. Agric. Allied Sci. 7,
4.
Fraceto, L.F., Grillo, R., de Medeiros, G.A., Scognamiglio,
V., Rea, G., Bartolucci, C. (2016). Nanotechnology in
Agriculture: Which Innovation Potential Does It Have?
Front. Environ. Sci. 4, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.
2016.00020
Ghidan, A.Y., Antary, T. M. A. (2019). Applications of
Nanotechnology in Agriculture. Intech Open 14.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88390
Gul, H.T., Saeed, S., Khan, F.Z.A., Manzoor, S.A. (2014).
Potential of Nanotechnology in Agriculture and Crop
Protection: A Review. Appl. Sci. Bus. Econ. 1, 23–28.
Handford, C.E., Dean, M., Spence, M., Henchion, M.,
Campbell, K. (2014). Nanotechnology in the Agri- Food
industry on the island of Ireland: applications,
opportunities and challenges. Institute for Global Food
Security at Queen’s University, Belfast, and the
Teagasc Ashtown Food Research Centre, Dublin.
He, X., Deng, H., Hwang, H. (2019). The current
application of nanotechnology in food and agriculture.
J. Food Drug Anal. 27, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jfda.2018.12.002
Hosseini, S. J. F., Dehyouri, S., Mirdamadi, S.M. (2010).
The perception of Agricultural Researchers about the
Role of Nanotechnology in Achieving Food Security.
Afr. J. Biotechnol. 9, 6152–6157.
Huang, S., Wang, L., Liu, L., Hou, Y., Li, L. (2015).
Nanotechnology in agriculture, livestock, and
aquaculture in China. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev.
35, 369–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-014-
0274-x
Iavicoli, I., Leso, V., Beezhold, D.H., Shvedova, A. A.
(2017). Nanotechnology in agriculture: Opportunities,
toxicological implications, and occupational risks.
Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 329, 96–111.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2017.05.025
Janmohammadi, M., Seifi, A., Pasandi, M., Sabaghnia, N.
(2017). The impact of organic manure and nano-
inorganic fertilizers on the growth, yield and oil content
of sunflowers under well-watered conditions. Biologija
62, 227–241. https://doi.org/10.6001/biologija.v62i4.
3410
Joldersma, D., Liu, Z. (2018). Plant genetics enters the
nano age? Nanoparticle-mediated plant transformation.
J. Integr. Plant Biol. 60, 446–447. https://doi.org/10.
1111/jipb.12646
Joseph, T., Morrison, M. (2006). Nanoforum Report:
Nanotechnology in Agriculture and Food. Inst.
Nanotechnol. 14.
Joshi, H., Choudhary, P., Mundra, S. (2019). Future
prospects of nanotechnology in agriculture. Int. J.
Chem. Stud. 7, 957–963.
Kale, A. P., Gawade, Satyavikas, N. (2016). Studies on
nanoparticle Induced Nutrient Use Efficiency of
Fertilizer and Crop Productivity. Green Chem. Technol.
Lett. 2, 88–92. https://doi.org/10.18510/gctl.2016.226
Kalpana Sastry, R., Anshul, S., Rao, N. H. (2012).
Nanotechnology in food processing sector-An
assessment of emerging trends. J. Food Sci. Technol.
50, 831–841. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-012-0873
-y
Khan, M. R., Rizvi, T. F. (2014). Nanotechnology: Scope
and Application in Plant Disease Management. Plant
Pathol. J. 13, 214–231. https://doi.org/10.3923/ppj.
2014.214.231
Lyons, K. (2010). Nanotechnology: Transforming Food
and the Environment. Food First Backgrounder - Inst.
Fof Food Dev. Policy 16, 4.
Marchiol, L. (2018). Nanotechnology in Agriculture: New
Opportunities and Perspectives, in: Çelik, Ö. (Ed.), New
Visions in Plant Science. InTech. https://doi.org/10.
5772/intechopen.74425
Meetoo, D. D. (2011). Nanotechnology and the food
sector: From the farm to the table. Emir. J. Food Agric.
23, 387–403.
Mikkelsen, R. (2018). Nanofertilizer and Nanotechnology:
A quick look. Better Crops Plant Food 102, 18–19.
https://doi.org/10.24047/BC102318
Miller, G., Senjen, R. (2008). Out of the Laboratory and on
to our plates - Nanotechnology in Food & Agriculture,
2nd Edition. ed. Friends of the Earth Australia
Nanotechnology Project, A report prepared for Friends
of the Earth Australia, Friends of the Earth Europe and
Friends of the Earth United States and supported by
Friends of the Earth Germany.
Mishra, S., Keswani, C., Abhilash, P.C., Fraceto, L.F.,
Singh, H.B. (2017). Integrated Approach of Agri-
nanotechnology: Challenges and Future Trends. Front.
Plant Sci. 8, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.
00471

11. Nanotechnology Applications in Crop Production and Food Systems
Int. J. Plant Breed. Crop Sci. 634
Mousavi, S. R., Rezaei, M. (2011). Nanotechnology in
Agriculture and Food Production. J. Appl. Environ. Biol.
Sci. 1, 414–419.
Mukhopadhyay, S. S. (2014). Nanotechnology in
agriculture: prospects and constraints. Nanotechnol.
Sci. Appl. 4, 63–71. https://doi.org/10.2147/NSA.
S39409
Muller, C. D., Machado, A. B., Bruschi, L. F. R. dos S.,
Okada, A. M. de S., Suyenaga, E. S., Carone, C. L. P.,
Berlese, D. B., Rech, V. C., Feksa, L. R. (2017). A
Review of the perspectives of nanotechnology in
Agriculture and environment. Discip. Sci. Nat. E
Tecnológicas St. Maria 18, 499–514.
Mustafa, N.S., Zaied, N.S. (2019). Nano-technology
applications in fruit trees orchards. J. Innov. Pharm.
Biol. Sci. JIPBS 6, 36–45.
Nikalje, A. P. (2015). Nanotechnology and its Applications
in Medicine. Med. Chem. 5. https://doi.org/10.4172/
2161-0444.1000247
Ozimek, L., Pospiech, E., Narine, S. (2010).
Nanotechnology in Food and Meat Processing. Acta
Sci. Pol. 9, 401–412.
Pal, M. (2017). Nanotechnology: A New Approach in Food
Packaging. J. Food Microbiol. Saf. Hyg. 02.
https://doi.org/10.4172/2476-2059.1000121
Pradhan, S., Bahadur, S., Pradhan, S. S. (2017). Role of
Nanotechnology in Agriculture. Contemp. Res. India 7,
4.
Rashidi, L., Khosravi-Darani, K. (2011). The Applications
of Nanotechnology in Food Industry. Crit. Rev. Food
Sci. Nutr. 51, 723–730. https://doi.org/10.1080/
10408391003785417
Rawat, A., Kumar, R., Bhatt, B., Ram, P. (2018).
Nanotechnology in Agriculture- A Review. Int. J. Curr.
Microbiol. Appl. Sci. 7, 969–978.
Roco, M. C., Hersam, M. C., Mirkin, C. A. (2011).
Nanotechnology Research Directions for Societal
Needs in 2020: Retrospective and Outlook. Springer
Netherlands, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
94-007-1168-6
Sabourin, V., Ayande, A. (2015). Commercial
Opportunities and Market Demand for
Nanotechnologies in Agribusiness Sector. J. Technol.
Manag. Innov. 10, 40–51. https://doi.org/10.4067/
S0718-27242015000100004
Salamanca-Buentello, F., Persad, D. L., Court, E. D.,
Martin, D. K., Daar, A. S., Singer, P. A. (2005).
Nanotechnology and the developing world. PLoS Med
2, 383–386.
Sekhon, B. (2014). Nanotechnology in agri-food
production: an overview. Nanotechnol. Sci. Appl. 7, 31–
53. https://doi.org/10.2147/NSA.S39406
Shang, Y., Hasan, M. K., Ahammed, G. J., Li, M., Yin, H.,
Zhou, J. (2019). Applications of Nanotechnology in
Plant Growth and Crop Protection: A Review.
Molecules 24, 2558. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules
24142558
Singh, T., Shukla, S., Kumar, P., Wahla, V., Bajpai, V. K.,
Rather, I. A. (2017). Application of Nanotechnology in
Food Science: Perception and Overview. Front.
Microbiol. 8, 1501. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2017.
01501
Spandana, P. (2016). Nanotechnology Applications in
Food Industry-A Review. Res. Rev. J. Pharm.
Nanotechnol. 4, 7.
Srilatha, B. (2011). Nanotechnology in Agriculture. J.
Nanomedicine Nanotechnol. 2. https://doi.org/10.4172/
2157-7439.1000123
Swift, T. A., Oliver, T. A. A., Galan, M. C., Whitney, H. M.
(2019). Functional nanomaterials to augment
photosynthesis: evidence and considerations for their
responsible use in agricultural applications. Interface
Focus 9, 20180048. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsfs.2018.
0048
Worrall, E., Hamid, A., Mody, K., Mitter, N., Pappu, H.
(2018). Nanotechnology for Plant Disease
Management. Agronomy 8, 285. https://doi.org/10.
3390/agronomy8120285
Wyser, Y., Adams, M., Avella, M., Carlander, D., Garcia,
L., Pieper, G., Rennen, M., Schuermans, J., Weiss, J.
(2016). Outlook and Challenges of Nanotechnologies
for Food Packaging: Outlook and Challenges of
Nanotechnologies for Food Packaging. Packag.
Technol. Sci. 29, 615–648. https://doi.org/10.1002/
pts.2221
Ziarati, P., Shirkhan, F., Mostafidi, M., Zahedi, M. T.
(2018). A Comprehensive Review: Toxicity of
Nanotechnology in the Food Industry. J. Med. Discov.,
jmd18010 3, 12. https://doi.org/10.24262/jmd.3.2.
18010
Accepted 9 January 2020
Citation: Ndlovu N, Mayaya T, Muitire C, Munyengwa N
(2020). Nanotechnology Applications in Crop Production
and Food Systems. International Journal of Plant Breeding
and Crop Science, 7(1): 624-634.
Copyright: © 2020: Ndlovu et al. This is an open-access
article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original author and source are cited.