Material for participants. IST Comenius-Grundtvig Course. Europe between Mythology, Modernity and Multiculturalism. Powered by Laboratorio del Cittadino Onlus.
Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi (9th-century muslim astronomer)Rehan Shaikh
Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi was a 9th century astronomer, geographer, and mathematician from Baghdad who made significant contributions to trigonometry. He described trigonometric ratios such as sine, cosine, tangent, and cotangent for the first time and compiled early astronomical tables. In his major work "The Book of Bodies and Distances", he estimated various geographical and astronomical values such as the circumference and diameter of the Earth, Moon, and Sun. Some of his estimates for these values were quite accurate for the time.
This document provides an overview of key concepts for understanding topographic maps, including:
- Contour lines connect points of equal elevation and are used to show elevation changes on topographic maps. Contour interval is the difference in elevation between lines.
- Steeper slopes are shown by closer contour line spacing, while more gentle slopes have lines farther apart. Contour lines never cross and have specific shapes depending on terrain features.
- Topographic maps also use symbols, colors, and index contours to represent landforms and elevation information. These maps provide important data for understanding Earth's surface features and elevation.
Latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north-south position of a point on the Earth's surface. Lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run east-west as circles parallel to the equator. Latitude ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° (North or South) at the poles. Latitude is used together with longitude to specify the precise location of features on the Earth's surface. The document discusses how latitude is defined on both a spherical model of the Earth as well as a more accurate ellipsoidal model.
The document discusses key concepts in geography including:
1. Parallels and meridians - imaginary lines that circle the globe and are used to measure latitude and longitude.
2. Latitude and longitude - systems used to identify locations on Earth by their angular coordinates.
3. Map projections - methods of representing the 3D Earth on a 2D surface like a map, including cylindrical, conic, and azimuthal projections.
4. Cardinal directions, compass roses, and geographic coordinates - tools used to orient locations on maps.
The earliest known maps date back 16,500 BCE and were found on cave walls in France, mapping out parts of the night sky. Ancient Babylonians created clay tablet maps around 700 BCE showing cities and geographic features. Greeks like Hecataeus and Ptolemy greatly advanced cartography, with Ptolemy creating one of the first world atlases in the 2nd century CE. Modern mapping has been driven by exploration, war, science and technology, with innovations like satellite imagery, GIS systems, Google Earth, and mobile GPS mapping.
Differentiation between Global and Local Datum from Different aspect Nzar Braim
Differentiation between Global and Local Datum from Different aspect
Spatial professionals are required to deal with an increasingly wide range
of positioning information obtained from various sources including
terrestrial surveying, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
observations and online GNSS processing services. These positions refer
to a multitude of local, national, and global datums. A clear understanding
of the different coordinate reference systems and datums in use today and
the appropriate transformations between these are therefore essential to
ensure rigorous consideration of reference frame variations to
produce high-quality outcomes in spatial data analysis tasks.
Hostory of cartography or mapsTypes of Maps. Part 1
#Globe
#Earth
#Map
#Decision Making
#Cartography
#Cartographer
#Geography
#Geographer
#GIS
#Remote_Sensing
Vineesh V,
Assistant Professor Geography,
Directorate of Collegiate Education,
Government of Kerala, India
https://g.page/vineeshvc
https://geogisgeo.blogspot.com
This document provides an introduction to maps, including what maps are, why they are made, and how to read them. It discusses that maps are generalized views of areas seen from above that represent spatial relationships in a concise manner. It also covers map scales, symbols, projections, and how topographic maps specifically show both 2D and 3D features through the use of contour lines.
Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi (9th-century muslim astronomer)Rehan Shaikh
Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi was a 9th century astronomer, geographer, and mathematician from Baghdad who made significant contributions to trigonometry. He described trigonometric ratios such as sine, cosine, tangent, and cotangent for the first time and compiled early astronomical tables. In his major work "The Book of Bodies and Distances", he estimated various geographical and astronomical values such as the circumference and diameter of the Earth, Moon, and Sun. Some of his estimates for these values were quite accurate for the time.
This document provides an overview of key concepts for understanding topographic maps, including:
- Contour lines connect points of equal elevation and are used to show elevation changes on topographic maps. Contour interval is the difference in elevation between lines.
- Steeper slopes are shown by closer contour line spacing, while more gentle slopes have lines farther apart. Contour lines never cross and have specific shapes depending on terrain features.
- Topographic maps also use symbols, colors, and index contours to represent landforms and elevation information. These maps provide important data for understanding Earth's surface features and elevation.
Latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north-south position of a point on the Earth's surface. Lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run east-west as circles parallel to the equator. Latitude ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° (North or South) at the poles. Latitude is used together with longitude to specify the precise location of features on the Earth's surface. The document discusses how latitude is defined on both a spherical model of the Earth as well as a more accurate ellipsoidal model.
The document discusses key concepts in geography including:
1. Parallels and meridians - imaginary lines that circle the globe and are used to measure latitude and longitude.
2. Latitude and longitude - systems used to identify locations on Earth by their angular coordinates.
3. Map projections - methods of representing the 3D Earth on a 2D surface like a map, including cylindrical, conic, and azimuthal projections.
4. Cardinal directions, compass roses, and geographic coordinates - tools used to orient locations on maps.
The earliest known maps date back 16,500 BCE and were found on cave walls in France, mapping out parts of the night sky. Ancient Babylonians created clay tablet maps around 700 BCE showing cities and geographic features. Greeks like Hecataeus and Ptolemy greatly advanced cartography, with Ptolemy creating one of the first world atlases in the 2nd century CE. Modern mapping has been driven by exploration, war, science and technology, with innovations like satellite imagery, GIS systems, Google Earth, and mobile GPS mapping.
Differentiation between Global and Local Datum from Different aspect Nzar Braim
Differentiation between Global and Local Datum from Different aspect
Spatial professionals are required to deal with an increasingly wide range
of positioning information obtained from various sources including
terrestrial surveying, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
observations and online GNSS processing services. These positions refer
to a multitude of local, national, and global datums. A clear understanding
of the different coordinate reference systems and datums in use today and
the appropriate transformations between these are therefore essential to
ensure rigorous consideration of reference frame variations to
produce high-quality outcomes in spatial data analysis tasks.
Hostory of cartography or mapsTypes of Maps. Part 1
#Globe
#Earth
#Map
#Decision Making
#Cartography
#Cartographer
#Geography
#Geographer
#GIS
#Remote_Sensing
Vineesh V,
Assistant Professor Geography,
Directorate of Collegiate Education,
Government of Kerala, India
https://g.page/vineeshvc
https://geogisgeo.blogspot.com
This document provides an introduction to maps, including what maps are, why they are made, and how to read them. It discusses that maps are generalized views of areas seen from above that represent spatial relationships in a concise manner. It also covers map scales, symbols, projections, and how topographic maps specifically show both 2D and 3D features through the use of contour lines.
Surveying involves determining the positions of points on the Earth's surface and the distances and angles between them. This information is used for mapping boundaries, construction projects, and other purposes. A surveyor uses equipment like total stations, GNSS receivers, and drones to precisely measure locations. The history of surveying dates back to ancient times but modern techniques involving triangulation and electronic distance measurement have improved accuracy and efficiency.
Eratosthenes was a Greek mathematician, geographer, astronomer, and poet who lived from 276 BC to 194 BC. He is best known for being the first person to calculate the circumference of the Earth using simple methods. He knew that at noon on the summer solstice, the sun was directly overhead in Syene, Egypt. In Alexandria, Egypt on the same day, he measured the sun's angle of elevation and calculated it to be 1/50th of a circle. Using the known distance between the cities of 5,000 stadia, he estimated the Earth's circumference to be 50 times that distance, arriving at a remarkably accurate estimate. Eratosthenes made many other contributions including inventing
Maps represent the three-dimensional Earth on a two-dimensional surface, inevitably introducing some distortion. Different map projections attempt to minimize this distortion in different ways, prioritizing accuracy of shapes, areas, or distances depending on the projection. No single projection can accurately depict the entire globe without compromising some property of geographic accuracy.
This document discusses the lost art of celestial navigation using the stars. It explains how sailors were able to determine their latitude and longitude at sea before modern navigation tools. Some key methods mentioned include using Polaris to determine latitude, observing the positions of stars near the eastern or western horizon over multiple nights to calculate longitude, and using a Mariner's Nocturnal instrument to determine local time by the angles between stars like Polaris and Ursa Major.
This document discusses datums in geodesy. It begins by defining a datum as a reference frame for locating points on Earth's surface. It then describes the key components of a datum including the spheroid shape it defines and parameters like semi-major axis. It discusses different types of datums such as geocentric datums based on the Earth's center and local datums that are specific to a particular region. Examples of issues with local datums are also provided. The document outlines horizontal and vertical datums, common transformation methods, and applications of datums in areas like GPS and mapping.
The Earth is not a perfect sphere, but is slightly flattened at the poles. The Earth rotates daily on its tilted axis, causing seasons and influencing climate. Parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude form a grid system to locate positions on the Earth's surface. The Earth revolves around the Sun annually in an elliptical orbit, with the seasons resulting from the tilt of its axis of rotation. Precise geodetic coordinates define locations on the reference ellipsoid used to model the oblate spheroid shape of the Earth.
Ibn al Shatir (14th Century Muslim Astronomer) Rehan Shaikh
Ibn al-Shatir was a 14th century Muslim astronomer from Damascus who constructed an advanced sundial for the Umayyad Mosque and invented the first astrolabic clock. He published an astronomical treatise where he introduced new non-Ptolemaic models for the sun, moon, and planetary motions that eliminated problems with the Ptolemaic system. Ibn al-Shatir's models were mathematically equivalent to those developed by Copernicus over 150 years later, suggesting his work may have influenced Copernicus' development of the heliocentric model. Ibn al-Shatir also rejected the Ptolemaic model based on empirical evidence rather than just philosophy.
This document provides an overview of common map types and key map elements:
1) It describes several common types of maps including general reference maps, projection maps, charting maps, topical maps, and cartograms. It also highlights topographic maps, which show elevation and physical features.
2) It explains basic geographic elements including hemispheres defined by the equator and prime meridian, as well as cardinal directions shown on compasses.
3) It notes that maps use scales to relate distances on maps to actual distances, and that legends provide keys to symbols and colors used on maps.
The document discusses coordinate systems used in geodesy. It describes how a point on Earth's surface is projected onto a reference spheroid and geoid to define its horizontal and vertical positions. Geodetic coordinates use latitude, longitude, and elevation to precisely locate points on the spheroid. It also describes the Cartesian coordinate system and WGS 84 system used by the U.S. Defense Department as a geocentric reference frame. Key elements like great circles, parallels, and meridians are defined on the spheroid for determining latitude and longitude.
The document summarizes the history of navigation from ancient times to modern day. It describes how early navigators stayed close to shore and used landmarks to navigate before later developing tools like charts, quadrants, and astrolabes to determine latitude and longitude. Key advances included the invention of the chronometer to measure longitude in 1764 and modern technologies like radar, Loran, and GPS satellites that provide highly accurate global positioning. The overall progression showed how explorers improved navigation techniques and tools over time to trade, explore new lands, and spread religion more safely and efficiently around the world.
Introduction to MAPS,Coordinate System and Projection SystemNAXA-Developers
This document discusses key concepts in GIS including maps, coordinate systems, map projections, and their application in Nepal. It defines analog and digital maps, and explains that the earth is an ellipsoid rather than a perfect sphere. It introduces geographic and rectangular coordinate systems, and defines map projections as methods to represent the curved earth on a flat surface. The document outlines the Everest ellipsoid and UTM/MUTM projection systems used in Nepal.
Map projections convert latitude and longitude coordinates on a spherical Earth into two-dimensional planar coordinates by applying a mathematical transformation. They define a coordinate system and allow measurement of horizontal and vertical distances to establish positions of geographic features. Creating a projection involves selecting an Earth model (sphere or ellipsoid) and transforming geographic to planar coordinates. Common projections preserve either shapes, areas, distances or directions depending on the mapping needs.
Geography is the study of the world's environments and human-environment interactions. It has two components: physical geography, which examines the natural world, and human geography, which studies human cultures and activities. Maps are an important tool for geographers, as they can display large amounts of information visually. Different types of maps include political, physical, and thematic maps. Geographers use tools like GIS, aerial photography, and GPS to collect and analyze geographic data and create maps.
This document discusses reference systems and reference frames in geodesy. It defines a reference system as a set of prescriptions that define a coordinate axis, while a reference frame realizes the system by specifying coordinates of definite points. It describes how satellite systems like GPS have revolutionized geodetic control by providing accurate global positioning. It also defines geodetic and vertical datums, explaining that a datum defines a coordinate system through parameters like origin, orientation, and ellipsoid specification to reference geodetic applications.
The document discusses various methods of georeferencing, which is assigning accurate locations to spatial information. The most comprehensive method is using latitude and longitude, which defines locations based on angles from the equator and Greenwich Meridian. However, the Earth's curved surface poses issues for technologies that work with flat maps and data. Therefore, map projections are used to translate locations on the spherical Earth onto flat planes or surfaces, though all projections introduce some distortion. Common projections include cylindrical, conic, and the Universal Transverse Mercator system.
This document discusses geodetic systems and how they represent the Earth mathematically. It defines key concepts like datums, ellipsoids, and coordinate systems. Specifically, it explains that datums define geodetic systems using reference ellipsoids that approximate the geoid and Earth's irregular shape. Common datums like NAD27, NAD83, and WGS84 are described that use different ellipsoids and reference points. It also outlines how latitude, longitude, and elevation are used in geographic coordinate systems to specify locations on Earth.
This document discusses different types of map projections used to represent the spherical Earth on a flat surface. It describes terrestrial globes which do not distort the Earth's surface but are not useful for studying details. It then explains that all map projections inevitably introduce some distortion and describes three main categories of projections - equivalent, equidistant, and conformal - based on how they portray specific characteristics. The rest of the document provides details on cylindrical, conic, and azimuthal/zenithal projection types and their unique properties and distortions.
Eratosthenes's experiment measuring the EarthHupenyu Mutoro
Eratosthenes, a Greek scholar living in the 3rd century BC, conducted an experiment to measure the circumference of the Earth. He noticed that on the summer solstice in Syene, now Aswan, an obelisk cast no shadow at noon, meaning the sun's rays were directly overhead. Meanwhile at the same time in Alexandria, 800 km north, the sun's rays formed a 7.2 degree angle with the surface. Using simple geometry and knowing the distance between the cities, Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth to be approximately 40,000 km, remarkably close to the modern measurement. His innovative experiment demonstrated the spherical shape of the Earth over 200 years before the time of
Pliny the Elder was a Roman author, philosopher, and soldier born in 23 AD in Italy. He is known for his encyclopedic 37-volume work called Natural History, which covered many topics from zoology to medicine and was used as a source of education during the Middle Ages. Pliny received an education in Rome and later served in the military before devoting himself to writing. He died in 79 AD while attempting to rescue friends from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius near Pompeii.
The document discusses Ptolemy's Geography (GH) and its relationship to earlier works of geography and cartography. It provides context on Ptolemy's sources including Marinos of Tyre and notes key differences between chorography and geography as Ptolemy defined them. The document also analyzes several aspects of Ptolemy's work, including his treatment of locations, boundaries, precision of coordinates and use of temporal data. It argues Ptolemy's GH was an original composition that incorporated rich chorographic details into geography, and proposes this provides a new understanding of pre-history of mapping.
Surveying involves determining the positions of points on the Earth's surface and the distances and angles between them. This information is used for mapping boundaries, construction projects, and other purposes. A surveyor uses equipment like total stations, GNSS receivers, and drones to precisely measure locations. The history of surveying dates back to ancient times but modern techniques involving triangulation and electronic distance measurement have improved accuracy and efficiency.
Eratosthenes was a Greek mathematician, geographer, astronomer, and poet who lived from 276 BC to 194 BC. He is best known for being the first person to calculate the circumference of the Earth using simple methods. He knew that at noon on the summer solstice, the sun was directly overhead in Syene, Egypt. In Alexandria, Egypt on the same day, he measured the sun's angle of elevation and calculated it to be 1/50th of a circle. Using the known distance between the cities of 5,000 stadia, he estimated the Earth's circumference to be 50 times that distance, arriving at a remarkably accurate estimate. Eratosthenes made many other contributions including inventing
Maps represent the three-dimensional Earth on a two-dimensional surface, inevitably introducing some distortion. Different map projections attempt to minimize this distortion in different ways, prioritizing accuracy of shapes, areas, or distances depending on the projection. No single projection can accurately depict the entire globe without compromising some property of geographic accuracy.
This document discusses the lost art of celestial navigation using the stars. It explains how sailors were able to determine their latitude and longitude at sea before modern navigation tools. Some key methods mentioned include using Polaris to determine latitude, observing the positions of stars near the eastern or western horizon over multiple nights to calculate longitude, and using a Mariner's Nocturnal instrument to determine local time by the angles between stars like Polaris and Ursa Major.
This document discusses datums in geodesy. It begins by defining a datum as a reference frame for locating points on Earth's surface. It then describes the key components of a datum including the spheroid shape it defines and parameters like semi-major axis. It discusses different types of datums such as geocentric datums based on the Earth's center and local datums that are specific to a particular region. Examples of issues with local datums are also provided. The document outlines horizontal and vertical datums, common transformation methods, and applications of datums in areas like GPS and mapping.
The Earth is not a perfect sphere, but is slightly flattened at the poles. The Earth rotates daily on its tilted axis, causing seasons and influencing climate. Parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude form a grid system to locate positions on the Earth's surface. The Earth revolves around the Sun annually in an elliptical orbit, with the seasons resulting from the tilt of its axis of rotation. Precise geodetic coordinates define locations on the reference ellipsoid used to model the oblate spheroid shape of the Earth.
Ibn al Shatir (14th Century Muslim Astronomer) Rehan Shaikh
Ibn al-Shatir was a 14th century Muslim astronomer from Damascus who constructed an advanced sundial for the Umayyad Mosque and invented the first astrolabic clock. He published an astronomical treatise where he introduced new non-Ptolemaic models for the sun, moon, and planetary motions that eliminated problems with the Ptolemaic system. Ibn al-Shatir's models were mathematically equivalent to those developed by Copernicus over 150 years later, suggesting his work may have influenced Copernicus' development of the heliocentric model. Ibn al-Shatir also rejected the Ptolemaic model based on empirical evidence rather than just philosophy.
This document provides an overview of common map types and key map elements:
1) It describes several common types of maps including general reference maps, projection maps, charting maps, topical maps, and cartograms. It also highlights topographic maps, which show elevation and physical features.
2) It explains basic geographic elements including hemispheres defined by the equator and prime meridian, as well as cardinal directions shown on compasses.
3) It notes that maps use scales to relate distances on maps to actual distances, and that legends provide keys to symbols and colors used on maps.
The document discusses coordinate systems used in geodesy. It describes how a point on Earth's surface is projected onto a reference spheroid and geoid to define its horizontal and vertical positions. Geodetic coordinates use latitude, longitude, and elevation to precisely locate points on the spheroid. It also describes the Cartesian coordinate system and WGS 84 system used by the U.S. Defense Department as a geocentric reference frame. Key elements like great circles, parallels, and meridians are defined on the spheroid for determining latitude and longitude.
The document summarizes the history of navigation from ancient times to modern day. It describes how early navigators stayed close to shore and used landmarks to navigate before later developing tools like charts, quadrants, and astrolabes to determine latitude and longitude. Key advances included the invention of the chronometer to measure longitude in 1764 and modern technologies like radar, Loran, and GPS satellites that provide highly accurate global positioning. The overall progression showed how explorers improved navigation techniques and tools over time to trade, explore new lands, and spread religion more safely and efficiently around the world.
Introduction to MAPS,Coordinate System and Projection SystemNAXA-Developers
This document discusses key concepts in GIS including maps, coordinate systems, map projections, and their application in Nepal. It defines analog and digital maps, and explains that the earth is an ellipsoid rather than a perfect sphere. It introduces geographic and rectangular coordinate systems, and defines map projections as methods to represent the curved earth on a flat surface. The document outlines the Everest ellipsoid and UTM/MUTM projection systems used in Nepal.
Map projections convert latitude and longitude coordinates on a spherical Earth into two-dimensional planar coordinates by applying a mathematical transformation. They define a coordinate system and allow measurement of horizontal and vertical distances to establish positions of geographic features. Creating a projection involves selecting an Earth model (sphere or ellipsoid) and transforming geographic to planar coordinates. Common projections preserve either shapes, areas, distances or directions depending on the mapping needs.
Geography is the study of the world's environments and human-environment interactions. It has two components: physical geography, which examines the natural world, and human geography, which studies human cultures and activities. Maps are an important tool for geographers, as they can display large amounts of information visually. Different types of maps include political, physical, and thematic maps. Geographers use tools like GIS, aerial photography, and GPS to collect and analyze geographic data and create maps.
This document discusses reference systems and reference frames in geodesy. It defines a reference system as a set of prescriptions that define a coordinate axis, while a reference frame realizes the system by specifying coordinates of definite points. It describes how satellite systems like GPS have revolutionized geodetic control by providing accurate global positioning. It also defines geodetic and vertical datums, explaining that a datum defines a coordinate system through parameters like origin, orientation, and ellipsoid specification to reference geodetic applications.
The document discusses various methods of georeferencing, which is assigning accurate locations to spatial information. The most comprehensive method is using latitude and longitude, which defines locations based on angles from the equator and Greenwich Meridian. However, the Earth's curved surface poses issues for technologies that work with flat maps and data. Therefore, map projections are used to translate locations on the spherical Earth onto flat planes or surfaces, though all projections introduce some distortion. Common projections include cylindrical, conic, and the Universal Transverse Mercator system.
This document discusses geodetic systems and how they represent the Earth mathematically. It defines key concepts like datums, ellipsoids, and coordinate systems. Specifically, it explains that datums define geodetic systems using reference ellipsoids that approximate the geoid and Earth's irregular shape. Common datums like NAD27, NAD83, and WGS84 are described that use different ellipsoids and reference points. It also outlines how latitude, longitude, and elevation are used in geographic coordinate systems to specify locations on Earth.
This document discusses different types of map projections used to represent the spherical Earth on a flat surface. It describes terrestrial globes which do not distort the Earth's surface but are not useful for studying details. It then explains that all map projections inevitably introduce some distortion and describes three main categories of projections - equivalent, equidistant, and conformal - based on how they portray specific characteristics. The rest of the document provides details on cylindrical, conic, and azimuthal/zenithal projection types and their unique properties and distortions.
Eratosthenes's experiment measuring the EarthHupenyu Mutoro
Eratosthenes, a Greek scholar living in the 3rd century BC, conducted an experiment to measure the circumference of the Earth. He noticed that on the summer solstice in Syene, now Aswan, an obelisk cast no shadow at noon, meaning the sun's rays were directly overhead. Meanwhile at the same time in Alexandria, 800 km north, the sun's rays formed a 7.2 degree angle with the surface. Using simple geometry and knowing the distance between the cities, Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth to be approximately 40,000 km, remarkably close to the modern measurement. His innovative experiment demonstrated the spherical shape of the Earth over 200 years before the time of
Pliny the Elder was a Roman author, philosopher, and soldier born in 23 AD in Italy. He is known for his encyclopedic 37-volume work called Natural History, which covered many topics from zoology to medicine and was used as a source of education during the Middle Ages. Pliny received an education in Rome and later served in the military before devoting himself to writing. He died in 79 AD while attempting to rescue friends from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius near Pompeii.
The document discusses Ptolemy's Geography (GH) and its relationship to earlier works of geography and cartography. It provides context on Ptolemy's sources including Marinos of Tyre and notes key differences between chorography and geography as Ptolemy defined them. The document also analyzes several aspects of Ptolemy's work, including his treatment of locations, boundaries, precision of coordinates and use of temporal data. It argues Ptolemy's GH was an original composition that incorporated rich chorographic details into geography, and proposes this provides a new understanding of pre-history of mapping.
This document provides information about the Dark Ages in Europe and the influence of geography on medieval society. It begins with questions for students to answer about the Dark Ages and European geography. It then defines the Dark Ages as the period from 476-1000 CE after the fall of Rome when Europe lacked leadership. Historians call it "Dark" due to lack of information and little cultural advancement. The document describes the different climates and crops of Northern and Southern Europe and how abundant resources like forests and farmland allowed small self-sufficient kingdoms to form. Geography shaped medieval society by providing good conditions for farming and production across Europe.
Eratosthenes was the first person to use the term "geography" and invented the discipline of geography. He made important contributions including calculating the tilt of the Earth's axis and the distance from Earth to the sun. Al Idrisi was a Muslim geographer and traveler from Spain who wrote one of the greatest works of geography. Strabo's geography is the only existing work covering the whole collection of peoples and countries known to Greeks and Romans at the time.
During the Middle Ages, music was monophonic with a single melodic line like Gregorian chants. Later, polyphonic texture with multiple melodic lines was introduced. In the Renaissance, harmony became more developed. The church modes provided scales for medieval music composition but were replaced later. Troubadours, trouvères, and minstrels composed and sang love songs and stories during this period. Madrigals were short lyric poems set to music for multiple voices. Chansons were French songs that evolved from troubadour songs and reached their height in the 16th century.
This document outlines the content standards, performance standards, and learning competencies for music students in the first quarter. It covers three historical periods of music: the Medieval period from 700-1400 AD, including Gregorian chants and troubadour music; the Renaissance period from 1400-1600 AD, including masses and madrigals; and the Baroque period from 1685-1750 AD, including concerto grosso and oratorio forms. Students will learn about the cultural backgrounds of these eras and perform songs, describe musical elements, and relate the music to history. They will also explore other arts from these time periods and improvise accompaniments.
1. Origins of modern geography date back to 16th century Western Europe with the expansion of European power and trade links to the New World.
2. In the 17th-18th centuries, geography transformed from facilitating navigation and trade to a more scientific exploration driven by imperial objectives.
3. The 19th century saw the emergence of geographical societies and universities offering geography, with the Royal Geographical Society becoming the focal point of exploration and expanding European imperialism.
The Early Middle Ages, also known as the Dark Ages, saw the fall of the Western Roman Empire due to Germanic invasions. Small Germanic kingdoms like the Franks and Lombards emerged to fill the power vacuum. The Catholic Church was the sole surviving centralized institution and provided order. Charlemagne united much of Europe under the Frankish Empire and helped spread Christianity. His empire marked a revival of learning and centralized government, though it declined after his death.
This document provides a historical overview of the development of geography as a field of study. It describes contributions from ancient Greek philosophers who first classified the world into climatic regions. It discusses the work of Roman geographers like Strabo and Ptolemy who built upon these concepts and created early maps. During the Middle Ages, Muslim geographers advanced techniques like triangulation and created detailed maps. In modern times, geography grew as a science with debates between environmental determinism and possibilism perspectives on human-environment relationships.
Greek scholars made many important contributions to the field of geography from 500 BC to 200 BC. Some key figures included Thales, who proposed early geometric principles and viewed the Earth as a disk floating in water. Anaximander created one of the first world maps. Hecataeus established a literary tradition in geography by publishing one of the first formal descriptions of the known world. Herodotus is considered the father of history and ethnography for his geographical and human descriptions. Plato and Aristotle further developed understanding of the spherical Earth and habitable zones. Eratosthenes accurately calculated the Earth's circumference and is considered the father of geography. Hipparchus helped establish geography as a mathematical system.
More than 2,000 years ago, Eratosthenes calculated the spherical size of the Earth with reasonable accuracy.
Register to explore the whole course here: https://school.bighistoryproject.com/bhplive?WT.mc_id=Slideshare12202017
This presentation was made by a Grade 11-HUMSS student, Yishin Bueno.
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This document provides an introduction to the subject of geography. It defines geography as the study of the relationship between people and their environments. It outlines the major branches of geography such as physical geography, which studies the physical features of the Earth, and human geography, which studies human populations and culture. The document also discusses important concepts in geography like place, region, environment, location, and movement. It explains the tools used in geography like maps, globes, tables, graphs and charts. Finally, it provides background on the major continents of the world.
The document traces the history and development of maps from ancient times to the modern era. It discusses early maps created by Greek cartographers like Hecataeus, who depicted the world as a flat disc centered on Greece. Later maps showed the spherical earth concept accepted by Aristotle. Claudius Ptolemy created the first map to project the spherical earth onto a flat surface. During the medieval period, maps were dominated by religious views and placed Jerusalem at the center. Modern cartography advanced with explorers like Columbus and new mapmaking technologies. The first modern atlas was produced in the early 16th century.
The document discusses different types of world maps and map projections. It begins by defining what a map is and providing a brief history of mapmaking. It then explains several famous historical maps, such as Ptolemy's map of the world and the 15th century map of Toscanelli. The document also covers different types of map projections like Mercator, azimuthal, and Lambert projections. It concludes by listing some common themes of world maps, such as physical, climate, and travel maps.
The document discusses different types of world maps and map projections. It begins by defining what a map is and providing a brief history of mapmaking. It then explains several classic map projections like Mercator, azimuthal, and gnomonic. The document also covers common world map themes like political, physical, climate and economy maps. It identifies key parts of maps like compass roses and legends. Overall, the document provides a comprehensive overview of world maps and map projections.
The document traces the historical development of geography from ancient Greek contributions to its emergence as a modern academic discipline. It discusses the early concepts of geography put forth by Greek philosophers like Thales of Miletus and Eratosthenes. Roman geographers like Ptolemy and Strabo further expanded on these ideas. During the Middle Ages, Muslim geographers maintained and advanced Greco-Roman techniques. In the 18th century, geography became a recognized field of study in European universities. Two opposing views then emerged - environmental determinism, which believes the environment controls human activities, and possibilism, which emphasizes human agency to adapt to their surroundings. Modern geography integrates these perspectives through cultural ecology and regional studies approaches.
- The Babylonians developed a system of writing called cuneiform around 3000 BC using a stylus to make wedge-shaped impressions in wet clay. This was a natural consequence of using clay as their writing medium.
- Cuneiform characters became simplified over time, losing their original pictographic forms. Deciphering cuneiform scripts proved very challenging for scholars due to changes in the language over thousands of years.
- In the early 19th century, Georg Grotefend made the first breakthrough in deciphering cuneiform by deducing parts of text on Persian monuments, though his work was initially ridiculed. Henry Rawlinson further advanced decipherment by painstakingly copying the
In three sentences:
Bearings and directions can be measured using a compass, which orients users to cardinal directions like north, south, east, and west. The earth is a sphere, as was scientifically proven by early Greek thinkers like Aristotle and Eratosthenes. Modern cartography builds on ancient concepts of representing the spherical earth through map projections and coordinate systems using lines of latitude and longitude.
This document provides a history of the roots and development of geography. It discusses early contributions from ancient cultures like Babylonians, Greeks, Romans, and medieval Islamic scholars. Key figures who advanced geographic thought and mapping include Eratosthenes, Ptolemy, and Al-Idrisi. The document also outlines two opposing schools of thought on human-environment relationships - environmental determinism, which believes the environment controls human activities, and possibilism, which argues humans have more freedom of choice.
Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth using measurements from two cities in Egypt - Syene and Alexandria. He knew that on the summer solstice, the sun was directly overhead at Syene at noon. In Alexandria, 500 miles north, he measured the sun's shadow to be 7.5 degrees. Using this angle and the distance between the cities, he calculated the circumference of the Earth to be approximately 25,000 miles, with an error of only 4%.
A history of_classical_greek_literature_v2_1000104793 (1)Joy Mukherjee
This chapter introduces the history of Greek prose literature and discusses the early use of writing in Greece. It argues that writing was likely used in Greece before 700 BC based on early inscriptions. Around this time, lawgivers developed written legal codes and the sayings of wise men were recorded, indicating the growing use and familiarity with writing. However, poetry remained the dominant literary form until special influences in the 6th century encouraged the development of prose. These influences included changes in religion with the spread of Orphic and Eleusinian mysteries, and the dawn of philosophy in Greece.
The document provides an overview of geopolitics and its relationship to human security. It discusses how geopolitics has evolved from being considered a Nazi discipline to a methodology that can help explain complex phenomena. It also examines how concepts like globalization and relativity theory have impacted views on space and territory over time. The document explores topics like nation-states, transnational relations, and how maps have historically been used to represent political realities and interpret spaces.
The document provides an overview of the beginnings of classical geography. It discusses how the Greeks made many advancements in geographical knowledge through observation, measurement, generalization, and philosophy. Some key Greek figures and their contributions are highlighted, including:
- Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth.
- Hipparchus discovered the precession of the equinoxes and made early star catalogs.
- Herodotus divided the world into three continents and described existing tribes.
- Plato and Pythagoras developed early concepts of the solar system and spherical Earth through mathematical and philosophical means.
Geography is the study of the Earth's physical features and human habitats. It analyzes spatial relationships and how things are distributed over the Earth's surface. The Greeks were the first to practice geography as more than mapmaking. Eratosthenes coined the term "geography" and calculated the Earth's circumference. Modern geography integrates knowledge from various fields to study relationships between phenomena from a spatial perspective. It examines topics like climate, landforms, and human settlements.
This document is the introductory address given by Gardiner G. Hubbard, the president of the National Geographic Society, at the founding of the National Geographic Magazine in 1888. It provides a brief history of the evolution of geography as a science from ancient Greece to the modern era. Key points include that geography originally meant a description of land areas known to ancient Greeks, but now refers to describing the entire globe. The address also summarizes contributions of early geographers like Herodotus, Alexander the Great, Eratosthenes, Ptolemy, and the pause during Roman times when geography was not advanced significantly.
Contribution of Greek philosophers in geographyiqra ali
The document summarizes the contributions of several ancient Greek philosophers to the field of geography. It discusses Aristotle, Theophrastus, Herodotus, Eratosthenes, and Hecataeus. Aristotle studied the form, size, and geometry of the Earth. Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth and created one of the first maps featuring lines of latitude and longitude. Herodotus made important early observations about geography while traveling. Theophrastus and Hecataeus also made contributions through their writings and maps. The Greek philosophers helped establish geography as a field of study and made progress in measuring and mapping the Earth.
Presentation de la ville de Satovcha par le participants au cours erasmus+ ka1 in rome “Grand Tour in Europe: Creativity, Innovation, Active Citizenship and Intercultural Dialogue”
Presentation des participants au cours Erasmus+ Grand Tour in Europe: Creativity, Innovation, Active Citizenship and Intercultural Dialogue in Rome 14-19 October 2019
Ulysses Elytis was a Greek poet who won the 1979 Nobel Prize for Literature. He said that if Greece is disintegrated, you will be left with an olive tree, a vineyard, and a boat - referring to Greece's agricultural productivity and shipping industry as the forces that can rebuild the country. Melina Merkouri was an actress and politician who believed Greece's legacy and fortune lies in its culture and tourism. She fought to return the Parthenon Marbles from the British Museum to Athens. Xenophon Zolotas was a Greek economist who served as Governor of the Bank of Greece and Prime Minister. He gave a famous speech in Washington D.C. using only words of Greek origin to
10th High School is located in Heraklion city, Greece. It has almost 200 students who attend courses for three years. The school has 10 classrooms, a modern computer lab, physics and chemistry labs, a gym, and a library. It offers general education courses as well as choices between theoretical and science courses to prepare students for the university entrance exams. The school also implements numerous educational activities like environmental education, trips, and lectures on health and social issues.
Crete is the largest Greek island in the Mediterranean known for being the home of the ancient Minoan civilization. Heraklion is the largest city in Crete, serving as the capital and economic center. It has a long history dating back to Minoan times and has been ruled by Byzantines, Venetians, and Ottomans. Major attractions in Heraklion include the archaeological site of Knossos, the largest Bronze Age archaeological site in Europe, as well as museums housing artifacts from Minoan civilization. Crete has a unique culture influenced by its diverse rulers throughout history and is known for its healthy cuisine, folk dances, and biodiversity.
Curso grand tour en europe - Erasmus plus - Maria Nieves GonzalezSimone Petrucci
Este documento presenta un curso de formación en París del 8 al 13 de abril de 2019 sobre el "Grand Tour en Europa", centrado en la creatividad, la innovación, la ciudadanía activa y el diálogo intercultural. Incluye el programa con visitas a museos como el Museo del Hombre, el Petit Palais y el Louvre, así como talleres. La autora, profesora de geografía e historia en Jaén, España, espera intercambiar experiencias pedagógicas con otros docentes europeos. El curso le permitirá adquiri
Haukipudas Upper Secondary School has 380 students ages 16-19 and 20 teachers. It focuses on international cooperation as a UNESCO school, offering an internationality course for second year students and a trekking course. Finnish education is free at all levels and based on trust and responsibility, with the first national examination occurring at the end of general upper secondary education.
The document summarizes a meeting of partners for the ASE Erasmus+ project from November 2015-2017. Representatives from Poland, Romania, France, Greece, and Italy met in Castiglione del Lago, Italy for their first in-person meeting after communicating online. They visited a music school together, saw lessons, and had working sessions to plan student exchanges and future meeting dates. The partners gained insights into each other's schools and regions during their time in Italy.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Reimagining Your Library Space: How to Increase the Vibes in Your Library No ...Diana Rendina
Librarians are leading the way in creating future-ready citizens – now we need to update our spaces to match. In this session, attendees will get inspiration for transforming their library spaces. You’ll learn how to survey students and patrons, create a focus group, and use design thinking to brainstorm ideas for your space. We’ll discuss budget friendly ways to change your space as well as how to find funding. No matter where you’re at, you’ll find ideas for reimagining your space in this session.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Training: ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System - EN | PECB
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This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
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The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
RHEOLOGY Physical pharmaceutics-II notes for B.pharm 4th sem students
Mythology and Geography
1. Mythology, Geography and cartography
DESCRIPTION: This slide shows a 19th century reconstruction of the world view of the Greek
philosopher Strabo who wrote his famous geography at the beginning of the Christian era and
compiled his map from travelers' reports and the "writings" of ancients. The now lost map by Strabo
represented the sum total of cartographic knowledge before the Christian Era.
The contribution of Strabo as a scholar of great stature as philosopher, historian, and geographer,
epitomizes the continuing importance of the Greek intellectual heritage - and contemporary practice
- to the development of cartography in the early Roman world. As the reviser of Eratosthenes, he
also illustrates the continuous way later generations had built on the cartographic concepts first
clearly set out in the Hellenistic Age.
We are fortunate in possessing all seventeen books of the Geographia by Strabo, written in good
Greek although he himself was mixed Asiatic and Greek stock; it is through his writings that most
of our knowledge of Eratosthenes' mapping has come down. He was born at Amasia [Amasya] in
Pontus in 64 or 63 B.C. Strabo was educated at Nysa near Tralles in Caria and in 44 B.C. went to
Rome, where he studied under the Phoenician freedman Tyrannio and the Stoic philosopher
Athenodorus. He showed himself a keen supporter of Augustus and visited Rome several times.
From about 25 to 20 B.C. he was in Egypt, based at Alexandria. His Geographia was written
between 9 and 5 B.C. and parts revised in AD 18-19. Surprisingly, though, it seems not to have
been read in Rome in the first century, judging from the fact that it is not even mentioned by the
elder Pliny.
Strabo claimed to have traveled widely to bring together an enormous amount of geographical
knowledge. It is generally accepted, however, that he must have compiled much of this information
in the great library at Alexandria, where he had access to many earlier texts now lost. All his
writings were firmly set in, if not direct extensions of, the work of his predecessors. Thus his
Historical Memoirs in forty-seven books, now lost, was a continuation of Polybius. The
Geographia is of key importance to our whole knowledge of the history of Greek cartography as
2. well as to the history of science in general. Cortesão states that as a source it was "second to none in
the history of geography and cartography" of this period. Many of the earlier treastises that touch
upon maps are known to us only through Strabo, while the interest of his commentary on these
writers is in its critical handling of their theories, albeit he sometimes fails to advance truth by this
process.
In many ways the most interesting passages relating to cartography in Strabo's Geographia are
those that, although they contain no maps, give an account, for the first time in a surviving text, of
how a description of the known world should be compiled. His motives for writing such a
geography (so he tells us) were that he felt impelled to describe the inhabited world because of the
considerable strides in geographical knowledge that had been made through the numerous
campaigns of the Romans and Parthians. The world map had to be adjusted to take account of these
facts, and thus Strabo almost certainly proceeded by taking Eratosthenes' map - and the criticism of
it by Polybius, Crates, Hipparchus, and Posidonius - as the basis for his own work.
In this task of compilation Strabo seems to have worked systematically. The first stage was to locate
the portion of the terrestrial globe that was known to be inhabited. Strabo reasoned that it lay in a
northern quadrant of a globe, in a quadrilateral bounded by the frigid zone, the equator, and two
meridians on the sides. Strabo locates the frigid zone, or arctic circle, at 54° distance from the
equator. The so-called quadrilateral, bounded by half of this arctic circle, half of the equator, and
segments of two meridians, is a spherical quadrilateral, a portion of a sphere. In this design Strabo
had been influenced not only by Eratosthenes' measurement of the earth but also by the concept of
the four inhabited worlds, known and unknown, expounded by Crates, to whom he refers explicitly.
Thus far Strabo had relied on theoretical argument derived from his authorities. But he also adduced
good empirical grounds for this cartographic reasoning. He continued:
But if anyone disbelieves the evidence of reason, it would make no difference, from the point of
view of the geographer, whether we make the inhabited world an island, or merely admit what
experience has taught us, namely, that it is possible to sail round the inhabited world on both sides,
from the east as well as from the west, with the exception of a few intermediate stretches. And, as to
these stretches, it makes no difference whether they are bounded by sea or by uninhabited land; for
the geographer undertakes to describe the known parts of the inhabited world, but he leaves out of
consideration the unknown parts of it - just as he does what is outside of it. And it will suffice to fill
out and complete the outline of what we term "the island" by pining with a straight line the extreme
points reached on the coasting-voyages made on both sides of the inhabited world.
Despite the extension of the geographical horizons of the inhabited world since the time of
Eratosthenes, Strabo's oikumene [inhabited world] was smaller. Although Pythæs, Eratosthenes, and
perhaps Posidonius had fixed its northern limit on the parallel through Thule [Iceland ? 66° N],
Strabo, like Polybius, refused to believe that human life was possible so far north, and he blamed
Pytheas for having misled so many people by his claim that the "summer tropic" becomes the
"arctic circle" at the island of Thule. Again following Polybius, Strabo thus chose as the northern
limit of the map and of the inhabited world the parallel through Ierne [Irelandl, "which island not
only lies beyond Britain but is such a wretched place to live in on account of the cold that the
regions on beyond are regarded as uninhabitable." This parallel (54° N) is the projection of the
celestial arctic circle constructed for the latitude of Rhodes (36° N); it coincides with the one
mentioned by Geminus as the northern limit of the temperate zone. The southern limit of habitable
land, for Strabo as for Eratosthenes, is the parallel through the "Cinnamon-producing country"
[Ethiopia/Somaliland] at about 12° N. He estimated the latitudinal extent of the inhabited world as
less than 30,000 stades (compared with Eratosthenes' 38,000 stades) and reduced its length to
70,000 stades instead of Eratosthenes' 78,000.
In order to avoid the deformational problems of flat maps, Strabo stated that he preferred to
construct his map on a globe large enough to show all the required detail. He recommended that it
3. be at least ten feet (approximately three meters) in diameter and mentions Crates in this regard. On
the other hand, if a globe of this size could not be constructed, Strabo was familiar from
Eratosthenes with the transformation necessary to draw it on a plane surface. For a graticule, Strabo
adopted the straight forward rectangular network of parallels and meridians. He defended his
projection on the ground that it would make only a slight difference if the circles on the earth were
represented by straight lines, "for our imagination can easily transfer to the globular and spherical
surface the figure or magnitude seen by the eye on a plane surface." The dimensions of this flat map
were also to be generous. Strabo envisaged that it would be at least seven feet long and presumably
three feet wide, which would suit the length of the inhabited world (70,000 by 30,000 stades), one
foot being equivalent to 10,000 stades. Taking eight stades to a Roman mile, the scales is
1:6,250,000.
As with all Greek world maps, the great impediment to study for the historian of cartography is that
we have only these verbal descriptions, not the images themselves. Nevertheless, apart from the
reduced size of the inhabited world, the map Strabo envisaged was similar in its overall shape to
that drawn by Eratosthenes. In describing its detailed geography, however, Strabo did not employ,
at least overtly, Eratosthenes' division of the world into irregular quadrilaterals or sphragides, but
he often used geometric figures or comparisons to everyday objects to describe the general outline
of a country. For instance, he says that the province of Gallia Narbonensis presents the shape of a
parallelogram; that the rivers Garumma [Garonne] and Liger [Loire] are parallel to the Pyrenæus
[Pyrenees], forming with the ocean and the Cemmenus Mountains [Cevenne] two parallelograms;
that Britain is triangular; that Italy has been shaped sometimes like a triangle, sometimes like a
quadrilateral; that Sicily is indeed triangular, though one side is convex and the two others slightly
concave. Similarly, Strabo compares the shape of Iberia to an ox-hide, the Peloponnese to a plane-
leaf; and the northern part of Asia, east of the Caspian, to a kitchen knife with the straight side
along the Taurus range and the curved side along the northern coastline. India, with two adjacent
sides (south and east) much longer than the two others, he described as Rhomboidal; Mesopotamia,
between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, he saw as being like a boat drawn in profile, with the deck
on the Tigris side and the keel near the Euphrates. Strabo repeats that the river Nile was described
by Eratosthenes as a reversed N, and that its mouth was named after the Greek capital letter delta.
It is not clear how we should interpret these familiar graphic similes Strabo employed to describe to
his readers the land areas and other features on the world map. But they do suggest that he was
writing with a map in front of him. In some cases, where alternative descriptions are provided, he
may have been attempting to collate the outlines of more than one map. It is also probable that
students were expected to consult the text of the Geographia with the help of maps, so that the
shapes thus enumerated may have served as a simple mnemonic. Yet if such suggestions must
remain speculative, there can be little doubt that by the early Roman period world maps and globes
drawn by Greek scholars were encouraging a distinctively geographical way of thinking about the
world. And it is likely, among the educated group at least, that an increasingly standard image of the
inhabited world had come to be more widely accepted through the use of these maps.
Strabo was a lengthy and discursive writer, but demonstrated good critical power in assessing
earlier geographical writers and has given us a verbal picture of the known world of the time. He
treats Homer as the first writer on geography, and defends the Homeric picture of the known world
as substantially true. But within the Homeric chapters he has a section in which he attempts to
analyze navigation of the oceans over the ages. Thus he says: "It is not reasonable to suppose that
the Atlantic consists of two seas, confined by narrow isthmuses so as to prevent circumnavigation;
rather it must be confluent and continuous." His argument is that explorers tried to sail around
Africa but turned back when not obstructed by any landmass. The problems of the armchair
geographer are revealed in the journalistic trick of quotes from quotes on an important exploration:
'Posidonius says Herodotus thinks that certain men sent by Neco completed the circumnavigation'.
This is all he reports, so that we have to beware of using all his work as scientifically worthy
material. Perhaps because he is drawing on an account at second hand, he is afraid to support what
4. may have seemed like science fiction. He does not deal extensively with Hanno the Carthaginian,
instead spending much effort on questioning the explorations of Eudoxus of Cyzicus, who must
have added to the accumulation of knowledge about the remote parts of Africa.
Strabo likes to represent myths and poetic phraseology geographically. Thus he says that the legend
of the Golden Fleece brought back from Colchis by the Argonauts reflects the search for gold by
early Greeks in areas of the Black Sea. When Homer made Hera say: "For I shall see the bounds of
fertile earth and Oceanus, father of the gods", what he means, says Strabo, is that the Ocean touches
all the extremities of the land. Or again, when Homer describes Odysseus as seeing land as he was
on the crest of a great wave, he must have been referring to the curvature of the earth, a
phenomenon familiar to sailors. Some of this was polemic against Eratosthenes, who would not
have if that early epic poetry could contribute anything to scientific theory.
The most detailed examination of a term arising from Homeric geography is in respect of
Ethiopians. What did Homer mean by saying they were 'divided in two, some where Hyperion rises
and some where he sets'? The historian Ephorus (c.405-330 B.C.) mentioned an early tradition that
Ethiopians had overrun Libya, i.e. north Africa, as far as Dyris [the Atlas Mountains], and that some
had stayed there. Crates' view was based upon an unorthodox view that the division was north-south
rather than the obvious interpretation of east-west. Aristarchus of Samothrace (ca. 155 B.C.)
criticized Crates' interpretation, but claimed that Homer was simply wrong and there was only one
area in which Ethiopians lived. Strabo's own view is that there were two groups of Ethiopians, one
living in Asia and one in Africa; and that Homer thought likewise, though not to the extent of
placing the eastern group in India, of which he had no knowledge. However, this idea of eastern
Ethiopians living in some area of India and resembling Indians in appearance and customs persisted
throughout antiquity.
The function of geography, according to Strabo, is to be an interpreter, not of the whole world, but
of the inhabited world. Thus, accepting Eratosthenes' measurement of 252,000 stades for the
circumference of the earth, the geographer ought not to include the equatorial zone, since that in
Strabo's view is uninhabitable. Instead he should start his analysis with the Cinnamon Country [near
the mouth of the Red Sea, Somaliland], about 8,800 stades north of the equator, in the south, and
with Ireland in the north. He categorizes regions from south to north according to greatest length of
day in equinoctial hours. This list, starting at Meroe with thirteen hours and ending at an area north
of the Sea of Azov with seventeen hours, is similar to that given by the elder Pliny. As mentioned
earlier, in the extreme north, Strabo denied the existence of a Thule Island [Iceland ?]. To him the
most northerly inhabited area was Ierne [Ireland], itself 'only wretchedly inhabitable because of the
cold, to such an extent that regions beyond it are regarded as uninhabitable'. Likewise, if one were
to go not more than 4,000 stades [500 Roman miles] north from the center of Britain, one would
find an area near Ireland, which like the latter would be barely inhabitable.
Strabo's idea of the shape of the inhabited world is defined as follows:
Let it be taken as hypothesis that the earth together with the sea is spherical. Though not as
complete a sphere as if turned on a lathe . . . Let the sphere be thought of as having five zones. Let
the equator be conceived as a circle on n, and let a second circle be conceived parallel to it,
delimiting the frigid zone in the northern hemisphere, and through the poles a circle cutting these at
right angles. Then, since the northern hemisphere contains two-fourths of the earth . . ., in each of
these fourths a quadrilateral is delimited . . . In one of these two quadrilaterals . . . we say that an
inhabited world is settled, surrounded by sea and like an island.
He goes on to suggest that the quadrilateral in which the Atlantic lies resembles in shape half the
surface of a spinning-wheel, and that the oikumene [inhabited world] resembles a chlamys, a Greek
mantle. This suggests that the eastern and western extremities of the oikumene were thought of as
tapering and convex. Again, he estimated the length of the oikumene as 70,000 stades and its width
as less than 30,000.
5. As the ideal method of mapping the world, Strabo writes in far more cartographic terms than before,
We have now inscribed on a spherical surface the area in which we say the inhabited world is
settled; and anyone most closely modelling reality by means of man-made representations should
make a sphere of the earth, as Crates did, mark off the quadrilateral on it, and inside this should
place his map of the geographia, of the inhabited world. But one needs a large globe, so that the
section mentioned, being only a fraction of it, may clearly show the appropriate parts of the
oikumene, which win present a recognizable shape to users. If one can construct such a globe, it
should be not less than 10 feet in diameter. If one cannot make it as big or not much smaller, one
should construct a map of the oikumene on a plane surface at least seven feet long. For it will make
little difference if instead of the circles, vis. parallels and meridians, we draw straight lines between
which to place the klimata with the winds and the other differences, and the positions of parts of the
earth relative to each other and to celestial phenomena.
He goes on to say there is little point in making the meridians converge slightly in such a map, so
was it rectangular, a forerunner of something like Mercator's projection?
Like Herodotus, Strabo had travelled himself from Armenia and western Italy, from the Black Sea
to Egypt and up the Nile to Philæ. But his seventeen volumes-vastly important to his
contemporaries- read like a romance to us today, and a glance at the map laid down according to his
descriptions is like a vague and distorted caricature of the real thing. And yet, according to the men
of his times, he "surpasses all the geographical writings of antiquity, both in grandeur of plan and in
abundance and variety of its materials."
Strabo has summed up for us the knowledge of the ancient world as it was in the days of the
Emperor Cæsar Augustus of the great Roman Empire, as it was when in far-off Syria the Christ was
born and the greater part of the known earth was under the sway of Rome. A wall-map had already
been designed by order of Augustus to hang in a public place in Rome - the heart of the Empire - so
that the young Romans might realize the size of their inheritance, while a list of the chief places on
the roads, which, radiating from Rome, formed a network over the Empire, was inscribed on the
Golden Milestone in the Forum.
Strabo begins his book with a detailed account of southern Spain where he tells of her two hundred
towns.
Those best known are situated on the rivers, estuaries, and seas; but the two, which have acquired
the greatest name and importance, are Cordova and Cadiz. After these Seville is the most noted . . .
A vast number of people dwell along the Guadalquivir, and you may sail up it almost a hundred and
twenty miles from the sea to Cordova and the places a little higher. The banks and little inlets of this
river are cultivated with the greatest diligence. The eye is also delighted with groves and gardens,
which for this district are met with in the highest perfection. For fifty miles the river is navigable for
ships of considerable size, but for the cities higher up smaller vessels are employed, and thence to
Cordova river-boats. These are not constructed of planks pined together, but they were formerly
made out of a single trunk. A chain of mountains, rich in metal, runs parallel to the Guadalquivir,
approaching the river, sometimes more, sometimes less, toward the north.
He grows enthusiastic over the richness of this part of southern Spain, famous from ancient days
under the name of Tartessus for its wealth.
Large quantities of corn and wine are exported, besides much oil, which is of the first quality, also
wax, honey, and pitch . . . the country furnishes the timber for their shipbuilding. They have
likewise mineral salt and not a few salt streams. A considerable quantity of salted fish is exported,
6. not only from hence, but also from the remainder of the coast beyond the Pillars. Formerly they
exported large quantities of garments, but they now send the unmanufactured wool remarkable for
its beauty. The stuffs manufactured are of incomparable texture. There is a superabundance of cattle
and a great variety of game, while on the other hand there are certain little hares which burrow in
the ground (rabbits). These creatures destroy both seeds and trees by gnawing their roots. They are
met with throughout almost the whole of Spain. It is said that formerly the inhabitants of Majorca
and Minorca sent a deputation to the Romans requesting that a new land might be given them, as
they were quite driven out of their country by these animals, being no longer able to stand against
their vast multitudes." The seacoast on the Atlantic side abounds in fish, says Strabo. "The congers
are quite monstrous, far surpassing in size those of Our Sea. Shoals of rich fat tuna fish are driven
hither from the seacoast beyond. They feed on the fruit, of stunted oak, which grows at the bottom
of the sea and produces very large acorns. So great is the quantity of fruit, that at the season when
they are ripe the whole coast on either side of the Pillars is covered with acorns thrown up by the
tides. The tuna fish become gradually thinner, owing to the failure of their food as they approach
the Pillars from the outer sea.
He describes, too, the metals of this wondrous land - gold, silver, copper, and iron. It is astonishing
to think that in the days of Strabo the silver mines employed forty thousand workmen, and produced
the modern-day equivalence of approximately $1,800 a day!
But we cannot follow Strabo over the world in all his detail. He tells us of a people living north of
the Tagus, who slept on the ground, fed on acorn-bread, and wore black cloaks by day and night. He
does not think Britain is worth conquering - Ireland lies to the north, not west, of Britain; it is a
barren land full of cannibals and wrapped in eternal snows - the Pyrenees nun parallel to the Rhine -
the Danube rises near the Alps - even Italy herself runs east and west instead of north and south. His
remarks on India are interesting.
"The reader," he says, "must receive the accounts of this country with indulgence. Few persons of
our nation have seen it; the greater part of what they relate is from report. Very few of the
merchants who now sail from Egypt by the Nile and the Arabian Gulf to India have proceeded as
far as the Ganges."
He is determined not to be led astray by the fables of the great size of India. Some had told him it
was a third of the whole habitable world, some that it took four months to walk through the plain
only. "Ceylon is said to be an island lying out at sea seven days' sail from the most southerly parts
of India. Its length is about eight hundred miles. It produces elephants."
Strabo died about the year A.D. 21, and a century passed before Pliny wrote An Account of
Countries, Nations, Seas, Towns, Havens, Mountains, Rivers, Distances, and Peoples who now
Exist or Formerly Existed.
Strange to say, he never refers in the most distant way to his famous predecessor Strabo. He has but
little to add to the earth-knowledge of Strabo. But he gives us a fuller account of Great Britain,
based on the fresh discovers of Roman generals.
LOCATION: this map only exists as reconstruction.