Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is a whole-plant immune response that is activated upon localized infection by a pathogen. It provides long-lasting, broad-spectrum resistance against secondary infections. SAR involves the production of mobile signaling molecules like methyl salicylate, azelaic acid, and glycerol-3-phosphate in infected tissues that activate defenses in distant, uninfected tissues. This results in increased expression of pathogenesis-related proteins and other defenses. The NPR1 protein is a master regulator of the SAR response.
This document summarizes two fungal pathogens that cause early and late leaf spot disease in groundnuts: Mycosphaerella arachidis and Mycosphaerella berkeleyii. It describes their systematic position, symptoms, epidemiology, and management. Mycosphaerella arachidis causes early leaf spot, forming larger irregular lesions with yellow halos. Mycosphaerella berkeleyii causes late leaf spot, forming smaller circular lesions without halos. Both diseases require prolonged humidity for infection and development. Management includes cultural, chemical, and biological controls like crop rotation, fungicide application, and biocontrol agents.
The document discusses systemic acquired resistance (SAR), which confers long-lasting protection against a broad spectrum of pathogens. SAR is induced by initial infection and involves the signaling molecule salicylic acid, leading to accumulation of pathogenesis-related proteins throughout the plant. Key regulators of SAR include NPR1, which is required for SAR, and salicylic acid, which is involved in transmitting the defense signal systemically.
Molecular basis of plant resistance and defense responses to pathogensSenthil Natesan
This document summarizes a study on the molecular mechanisms of plant defense responses to the tomato powdery mildew fungus Oidium neolycopersici. The study investigated three monogenic genes (Ol-1, ol-2, and Ol-4) that confer resistance to the fungus via different mechanisms. It found that reactive oxygen species and callose accumulation were associated with resistances from both dominant and recessive Ol genes. cDNA-AFLP profiling identified different expression classes of genes, with Class III genes specifically upregulated only during incompatible interactions. The study provides insights into the molecular interactions and defense signaling pathways involved in the plant-pathogen system.
This document summarizes systemic acquired resistance (SAR) in plants. It discusses that SAR is a defense response activated by pathogens that results in long-lasting, broad-spectrum resistance in distant parts of the plant. The key points are:
- SAR involves accumulation of salicylic acid and pathogenesis-related proteins in distant, uninfected tissues which provides resistance against a wide range of pathogens.
- It is activated after an initial infection causes cell death and necrosis, and involves mobile signaling molecules like methyl salicylate that transmit the defense signal systemically.
- SAR protects against future infections by viruses, fungi, bacteria and activates genes that encode antimicrobial pathogenesis-related proteins.
This document discusses toxins produced by plant pathogens. It begins by classifying toxins into three categories: pathotoxins, phytotoxins, and vivotoxins. It then discusses specific toxins in more detail, distinguishing between host-specific toxins and non-host specific toxins. Examples of both types of toxins are provided, along with descriptions of their modes of action and effects on host tissues. Overall, the document reviews the role of toxins in plant disease development and pathogenesis.
The concept of gene for gene hypothesis was first developed by Flor in 1956 based on his studies of host pathogen interaction in flax, for rust caused by Melampsora lini. The gene for gene hypothesis states that for each gene controlling resistance in the host, there is corresponding gene controlling pathogenicity in the pathogen. The resistance of host is governed by dominant genes and virulence of pathogen by recessive genes. The genotype of host and pathogen determine the disease reaction. When genes in host and pathogen match for all loci, then only the host will show susceptible reaction. If some gene loci remain unmatched, the host will show resistant reaction. Now gene – for –gene relationship has been reported in several other crops like potato, sorghum, wheat, etc. The gene for gene hypothesis is also known as “Flor Hypothesis.”
bacteria can enters into plants by different mechanisms and the slides which includes different mode of entries into plants, and this information is also important for students who are preparing for NET exams.
Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is a whole-plant immune response that is activated upon localized infection by a pathogen. It provides long-lasting, broad-spectrum resistance against secondary infections. SAR involves the production of mobile signaling molecules like methyl salicylate, azelaic acid, and glycerol-3-phosphate in infected tissues that activate defenses in distant, uninfected tissues. This results in increased expression of pathogenesis-related proteins and other defenses. The NPR1 protein is a master regulator of the SAR response.
This document summarizes two fungal pathogens that cause early and late leaf spot disease in groundnuts: Mycosphaerella arachidis and Mycosphaerella berkeleyii. It describes their systematic position, symptoms, epidemiology, and management. Mycosphaerella arachidis causes early leaf spot, forming larger irregular lesions with yellow halos. Mycosphaerella berkeleyii causes late leaf spot, forming smaller circular lesions without halos. Both diseases require prolonged humidity for infection and development. Management includes cultural, chemical, and biological controls like crop rotation, fungicide application, and biocontrol agents.
The document discusses systemic acquired resistance (SAR), which confers long-lasting protection against a broad spectrum of pathogens. SAR is induced by initial infection and involves the signaling molecule salicylic acid, leading to accumulation of pathogenesis-related proteins throughout the plant. Key regulators of SAR include NPR1, which is required for SAR, and salicylic acid, which is involved in transmitting the defense signal systemically.
Molecular basis of plant resistance and defense responses to pathogensSenthil Natesan
This document summarizes a study on the molecular mechanisms of plant defense responses to the tomato powdery mildew fungus Oidium neolycopersici. The study investigated three monogenic genes (Ol-1, ol-2, and Ol-4) that confer resistance to the fungus via different mechanisms. It found that reactive oxygen species and callose accumulation were associated with resistances from both dominant and recessive Ol genes. cDNA-AFLP profiling identified different expression classes of genes, with Class III genes specifically upregulated only during incompatible interactions. The study provides insights into the molecular interactions and defense signaling pathways involved in the plant-pathogen system.
This document summarizes systemic acquired resistance (SAR) in plants. It discusses that SAR is a defense response activated by pathogens that results in long-lasting, broad-spectrum resistance in distant parts of the plant. The key points are:
- SAR involves accumulation of salicylic acid and pathogenesis-related proteins in distant, uninfected tissues which provides resistance against a wide range of pathogens.
- It is activated after an initial infection causes cell death and necrosis, and involves mobile signaling molecules like methyl salicylate that transmit the defense signal systemically.
- SAR protects against future infections by viruses, fungi, bacteria and activates genes that encode antimicrobial pathogenesis-related proteins.
This document discusses toxins produced by plant pathogens. It begins by classifying toxins into three categories: pathotoxins, phytotoxins, and vivotoxins. It then discusses specific toxins in more detail, distinguishing between host-specific toxins and non-host specific toxins. Examples of both types of toxins are provided, along with descriptions of their modes of action and effects on host tissues. Overall, the document reviews the role of toxins in plant disease development and pathogenesis.
The concept of gene for gene hypothesis was first developed by Flor in 1956 based on his studies of host pathogen interaction in flax, for rust caused by Melampsora lini. The gene for gene hypothesis states that for each gene controlling resistance in the host, there is corresponding gene controlling pathogenicity in the pathogen. The resistance of host is governed by dominant genes and virulence of pathogen by recessive genes. The genotype of host and pathogen determine the disease reaction. When genes in host and pathogen match for all loci, then only the host will show susceptible reaction. If some gene loci remain unmatched, the host will show resistant reaction. Now gene – for –gene relationship has been reported in several other crops like potato, sorghum, wheat, etc. The gene for gene hypothesis is also known as “Flor Hypothesis.”
bacteria can enters into plants by different mechanisms and the slides which includes different mode of entries into plants, and this information is also important for students who are preparing for NET exams.
This document provides an overview of mycorrhiza, which is a symbiotic relationship between fungi and plant roots. It defines mycorrhiza and explains that 95% of plant species form these relationships. It then classifies and describes the main types of mycorrhizal associations like ectomycorrhiza, endomycorrhiza, and orchid mycorrhiza. The document outlines the importance and benefits of mycorrhizal relationships for plant growth and health. It also discusses methods for isolating, mass producing, and applying mycorrhizal fungi.
This document discusses the concept and mechanisms of pathogen variability. It explains that pathogens can vary at the genus, species, variety/forma specialis, race, and variant levels. Variability can occur through mutation, mixed inoculation, conjugation, transformation, transduction, recombination, heterokaryosis, parasexuality, heteroploidy, cytoplasmic adaptation, and hybridization in viruses, bacteria, and fungi. The document provides examples of each mechanism and concludes by emphasizing that further research is still needed to fully understand even well-known plant diseases.
Sexual reproduction in fungi produces either ascospores or basidiospores. Ascospores develop within sac-like structures called asci, found within various types of fruiting bodies. Basidiospores develop on projections called sterigmata off of club-shaped basidia. Clamp connections are formed during cell division in basidiomycetes, facilitating nuclear exchange. Both ascospores and basidiospores are haploid resting structures that allow for dispersal and germination of fungi.
Diseases resistance and defence mechanismsRAMALINGAM K
This document summarizes plant resistance to pathogens and the mechanisms involved. It discusses two main types of resistance - horizontal (polygenic) and vertical (monogenic). It also describes various pre-existing and induced structural defenses plants employ, such as waxes, thickened cell walls, and formation of cork layers. Biochemical defenses include inhibitors, phenolics, phytoalexins, pathogenesis-related proteins, and systemic acquired resistance mediated by salicylic acid. Overall, the document provides an overview of genetic and physiological factors that determine a plant's ability to resist pathogens.
This document summarizes the key principles of plant infection:
1) Penetration is the entry of the pathogen into the host, which can occur directly through the plant surface, through wounds, or through natural openings like stomata, hydathodes, or lenticels.
2) Infection is the establishment of the pathogen within the host plant by procuring nutrients from host cells or tissues.
3) Invasion is the spread of the pathogen within the host, which can be intercellular or intracellular depending on the type of pathogen.
4) Dissemination refers to the spread of the pathogen from one plant to another, which can occur autonomously through soil, seeds, or plant parts,
- Hypersensitivity is a plant defense mechanism characterized by rapid programmed cell death at the site of infection to prevent pathogen spread. It is initiated by the recognition of pathogen elicitors by plant resistance proteins.
- This triggers biochemical responses like reactive oxygen species production and phytoalexin accumulation that cause cell death around the infection site. This localized cell death limits the pathogen to a small area and prevents disease development.
- The hypersensitive response is an example of incompatible interactions between plants with specific resistance genes and pathogens with corresponding avirulence genes. It represents a successful defense strategy employed by plants.
1. The document discusses plant pathogens and the enzymes they secrete to degrade plant cell walls and tissues. It describes the primary components of cuticles, cell walls, and middle lamella that pathogens target, including cutin, cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose, and lignin.
2. The key cell wall-degrading enzymes produced by pathogens are discussed, such as cutinases, pectinases, cellulases, hemicellulases, lignin-degrading enzymes, and proteases. Examples are given of pathogens and the roles of specific enzymes in disease development.
3. Effects of pathogens on physiological processes like photosynthesis, translocation of water and nutrients, respiration,
plant pathogen interaction
different types of pathogens
gene for gene hypothesis
direct receptor model
Elicitor receptor model
suppersor repressor model
gaurd hypothesis
1) Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between fungi and plant roots where the fungi colonize the root system and form a network that assists the plant with nutrient and water absorption.
2) There are different types of mycorrhizal associations classified based on where the fungi grow in relation to the root, including ectomycorrhizae, endomycorrhizae, and ectendomycorrhizae.
3) Mycorrhizal associations benefit plants by improving nutrient uptake, drought tolerance, and disease resistance, and are important for the growth of most plant species.
The document discusses mycorrhizal symbioses, which is an association between plants and fungi where the fungi colonize plant roots. There are several types of mycorrhizae including ectomycorrhizae, arbuscular mycorrhizae, and ericoid mycorrhizae. The fungi form structures like hyphae and arbuscules to transfer nutrients from soil to plant roots, improving plant growth. Mycorrhizal associations are important globally and different types dominate in different climate zones and soil conditions. Proper management of mycorrhizae can benefit plant nutrition especially in low phosphorus soils.
This document discusses the dispersal of plant pathogens. It defines dispersal as the transport of spores or infectious bodies from one host to another, resulting in the spread of disease. Dispersal can be direct through soil, seed, and planting material, or indirect through external agents like wind, water, insects, animals and humans. It then describes various modes of indirect dispersal, including wind which can disperse spores over short or long distances, water which can disperse propagules via rain splash or flowing water, and biological vectors like insects that transmit pathogens mechanically or through feeding. Other modes covered are dispersal by animals, humans, seed trade and farming activities. The document provides examples to illustrate different types of dispers
This document provides information about mycorrhizae, which is a symbiotic relationship between fungi and plant roots. It defines mycorrhizae and describes the two main types: ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae. Ectomycorrhizae are formed between fungi and the roots of about 10% of plant families, mainly woody plants. They involve a fungal sheath surrounding the root. Endomycorrhizae penetrate the root cells and include arbuscular mycorrhizae, the most common type, characterized by structures called arbuscules and vesicles. The relationship benefits both the plant, which receives increased nutrient and water absorption, and the fungus, which receives
The document discusses the role of enzymes, toxins, and growth regulators in plant pathology and disease development. It defines plant pathology and describes how diseases develop through a complex process influenced by environmental factors and stress. The summary is:
1) Plant pathology studies plant diseases and their causes and controls. Disease develops through interactions between pathogens, hosts, and the environment.
2) Key stages of disease development include inoculation, penetration, infection, pathogen growth and reproduction, and dissemination. Disease occurs when conditions are suitable for the pathogen but not the host.
3) Factors like temperature, moisture, light, soil properties, and wind influence disease development by affecting the pathogen, host, or their interaction. Understanding
Programmed cell death (PCD) is an important physiological process in plants that involves the selective elimination of unwanted tissues through controlled cell destruction. There are two main types of PCD in plants - autolytic PCD, which involves rapid cytoplasm clearance after vacuole rupture, and non-autolytic PCD where death occurs prior to vacuole rupture. PCD plays essential roles in plant development and defense. The purpose of developmental PCD is to regulate cell division and shape tissues and organs. Defensive PCD helps control invading microbes. Biochemical changes involved in PCD regulation include the action of various proteases and the vacuole. PCD occurs in many developmental processes including reproduction, seed and root development, and senescence.
The document discusses the key components of plant disease development: the host, pathogen, environment, time, and human factors. It explains how their interactions are described by the disease triangle and pyramid models. Specifically, it outlines how each of these components - the characteristics of the plant host, pathogen, environment, and human activities - can influence the development and spread of plant diseases.
1. Mycorrhiza refers to the symbiotic association between fungi and plant roots that was first coined in 1885.
2. Frank originally classified mycorrhiza into two main types - ectomycorrhiza and endomycorrhiza - based on where the fungi penetrate the root. Ectomycorrhiza forms a sheath over roots while endomycorrhiza penetrates cortical root cells.
3. There are several recognized forms of mycorrhiza including vesicular-arbuscular, ectomycorrhizal, and ericoid mycorrhiza which involve different fungal structures and host plant ranges.
Phenomenon and factors of infection in plants nishakataria10
This document discusses the phenomenon of plant infection and methods to control plant diseases. It describes the three phases of pathogenesis in plants: pre-penetration, penetration, and post-penetration. It then lists and explains various biological agents that can infect plants, such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes. Finally, it outlines four main methods to control plant diseases: cultural, physical, chemical, and plant quarantine methods.
Hypersensitivity and its Mechanism summarizes the hypersensitive response (HR) in plants. The HR is a localized cell death response at the site of infection that limits pathogen growth and provides resistance. It involves the recognition of pathogen elicitors by plant receptors, which activates a biochemical reaction cascade and the production of reactive oxygen species and defense compounds. This leads to cell death in infected areas and the acquisition of systemic resistance in other plant tissues through signaling molecules like salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and ethylene. The HR occurs through specific host-pathogen combinations and results in the depolarization of membranes and disintegration of cellular components at the infection site.
This document summarizes induced plant resistance against pathogens. It discusses the historical background of induced resistance being first observed over 100 years ago. It describes different types of induced resistance including systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and induced systemic resistance (ISR). SAR is mediated by salicylic acid and involves pathogenesis-related proteins, while ISR is mediated by jasmonic acid and ethylene. Biological agents like PGPR bacteria and plant extracts can also induce resistance. Signal transduction pathways underlying these responses are triggered upon pathogen recognition. While induced resistance offers opportunities for crop protection, practical applications are currently limited to some plants.
Infection, Invasion, Growth and Reproduction of pathogenAmmad Ahmad
This document discusses the infection, invasion, growth, and reproduction of plant pathogens. It describes how pathogens infect plants through various means such as intracellularly or intercellularly. Successful infections result in symptoms. The incubation period is the time between inoculation and symptom appearance, which depends on factors like the pathogen-host combination and environment. Pathogens invade tissues and spread systematically or locally within the plant. They continue growing and branching out indefinitely. Pathogens reproduce through various means like spores, fission, or eggs. Reproduction rates vary greatly between pathogen types but large numbers can be produced rapidly, facilitating widespread infection.
The document defines different types of mycorrhizal associations between fungi and plant roots that provide benefits to both organisms. It describes arbuscular mycorrhizas formed by Glomeromycota fungi in plant roots, which usually have structures called arbuscules and vesicles. It also discusses ectomycorrhizal associations with a Hartig net between root cells and a fungal mantle on root surfaces. The document provides examples of orchid mycorrhizas with fungal coils inside thin root cells, and ericoid mycorrhizas in the plant family Ericaceae with fungal coils or hyphae in root cells.
This document discusses different types of mycorrhizal associations between fungi and plant roots. The main types discussed are ectomycorrhizae, arbuscular mycorrhizae, orchid mycorrhizae, ericoid mycorrhizae, arbutoid mycorrhizae, and monotropoid mycorrhizae. These associations are typically mutualistic, with fungi helping plants uptake nutrients and water, and plants providing fungi with carbohydrates. Ectomycorrhizal fungi form sheaths around roots and penetrate the cortex, while arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi form structures called arbuscules and vesicles within root cells.
This document provides an overview of mycorrhiza, which is a symbiotic relationship between fungi and plant roots. It defines mycorrhiza and explains that 95% of plant species form these relationships. It then classifies and describes the main types of mycorrhizal associations like ectomycorrhiza, endomycorrhiza, and orchid mycorrhiza. The document outlines the importance and benefits of mycorrhizal relationships for plant growth and health. It also discusses methods for isolating, mass producing, and applying mycorrhizal fungi.
This document discusses the concept and mechanisms of pathogen variability. It explains that pathogens can vary at the genus, species, variety/forma specialis, race, and variant levels. Variability can occur through mutation, mixed inoculation, conjugation, transformation, transduction, recombination, heterokaryosis, parasexuality, heteroploidy, cytoplasmic adaptation, and hybridization in viruses, bacteria, and fungi. The document provides examples of each mechanism and concludes by emphasizing that further research is still needed to fully understand even well-known plant diseases.
Sexual reproduction in fungi produces either ascospores or basidiospores. Ascospores develop within sac-like structures called asci, found within various types of fruiting bodies. Basidiospores develop on projections called sterigmata off of club-shaped basidia. Clamp connections are formed during cell division in basidiomycetes, facilitating nuclear exchange. Both ascospores and basidiospores are haploid resting structures that allow for dispersal and germination of fungi.
Diseases resistance and defence mechanismsRAMALINGAM K
This document summarizes plant resistance to pathogens and the mechanisms involved. It discusses two main types of resistance - horizontal (polygenic) and vertical (monogenic). It also describes various pre-existing and induced structural defenses plants employ, such as waxes, thickened cell walls, and formation of cork layers. Biochemical defenses include inhibitors, phenolics, phytoalexins, pathogenesis-related proteins, and systemic acquired resistance mediated by salicylic acid. Overall, the document provides an overview of genetic and physiological factors that determine a plant's ability to resist pathogens.
This document summarizes the key principles of plant infection:
1) Penetration is the entry of the pathogen into the host, which can occur directly through the plant surface, through wounds, or through natural openings like stomata, hydathodes, or lenticels.
2) Infection is the establishment of the pathogen within the host plant by procuring nutrients from host cells or tissues.
3) Invasion is the spread of the pathogen within the host, which can be intercellular or intracellular depending on the type of pathogen.
4) Dissemination refers to the spread of the pathogen from one plant to another, which can occur autonomously through soil, seeds, or plant parts,
- Hypersensitivity is a plant defense mechanism characterized by rapid programmed cell death at the site of infection to prevent pathogen spread. It is initiated by the recognition of pathogen elicitors by plant resistance proteins.
- This triggers biochemical responses like reactive oxygen species production and phytoalexin accumulation that cause cell death around the infection site. This localized cell death limits the pathogen to a small area and prevents disease development.
- The hypersensitive response is an example of incompatible interactions between plants with specific resistance genes and pathogens with corresponding avirulence genes. It represents a successful defense strategy employed by plants.
1. The document discusses plant pathogens and the enzymes they secrete to degrade plant cell walls and tissues. It describes the primary components of cuticles, cell walls, and middle lamella that pathogens target, including cutin, cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose, and lignin.
2. The key cell wall-degrading enzymes produced by pathogens are discussed, such as cutinases, pectinases, cellulases, hemicellulases, lignin-degrading enzymes, and proteases. Examples are given of pathogens and the roles of specific enzymes in disease development.
3. Effects of pathogens on physiological processes like photosynthesis, translocation of water and nutrients, respiration,
plant pathogen interaction
different types of pathogens
gene for gene hypothesis
direct receptor model
Elicitor receptor model
suppersor repressor model
gaurd hypothesis
1) Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between fungi and plant roots where the fungi colonize the root system and form a network that assists the plant with nutrient and water absorption.
2) There are different types of mycorrhizal associations classified based on where the fungi grow in relation to the root, including ectomycorrhizae, endomycorrhizae, and ectendomycorrhizae.
3) Mycorrhizal associations benefit plants by improving nutrient uptake, drought tolerance, and disease resistance, and are important for the growth of most plant species.
The document discusses mycorrhizal symbioses, which is an association between plants and fungi where the fungi colonize plant roots. There are several types of mycorrhizae including ectomycorrhizae, arbuscular mycorrhizae, and ericoid mycorrhizae. The fungi form structures like hyphae and arbuscules to transfer nutrients from soil to plant roots, improving plant growth. Mycorrhizal associations are important globally and different types dominate in different climate zones and soil conditions. Proper management of mycorrhizae can benefit plant nutrition especially in low phosphorus soils.
This document discusses the dispersal of plant pathogens. It defines dispersal as the transport of spores or infectious bodies from one host to another, resulting in the spread of disease. Dispersal can be direct through soil, seed, and planting material, or indirect through external agents like wind, water, insects, animals and humans. It then describes various modes of indirect dispersal, including wind which can disperse spores over short or long distances, water which can disperse propagules via rain splash or flowing water, and biological vectors like insects that transmit pathogens mechanically or through feeding. Other modes covered are dispersal by animals, humans, seed trade and farming activities. The document provides examples to illustrate different types of dispers
This document provides information about mycorrhizae, which is a symbiotic relationship between fungi and plant roots. It defines mycorrhizae and describes the two main types: ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae. Ectomycorrhizae are formed between fungi and the roots of about 10% of plant families, mainly woody plants. They involve a fungal sheath surrounding the root. Endomycorrhizae penetrate the root cells and include arbuscular mycorrhizae, the most common type, characterized by structures called arbuscules and vesicles. The relationship benefits both the plant, which receives increased nutrient and water absorption, and the fungus, which receives
The document discusses the role of enzymes, toxins, and growth regulators in plant pathology and disease development. It defines plant pathology and describes how diseases develop through a complex process influenced by environmental factors and stress. The summary is:
1) Plant pathology studies plant diseases and their causes and controls. Disease develops through interactions between pathogens, hosts, and the environment.
2) Key stages of disease development include inoculation, penetration, infection, pathogen growth and reproduction, and dissemination. Disease occurs when conditions are suitable for the pathogen but not the host.
3) Factors like temperature, moisture, light, soil properties, and wind influence disease development by affecting the pathogen, host, or their interaction. Understanding
Programmed cell death (PCD) is an important physiological process in plants that involves the selective elimination of unwanted tissues through controlled cell destruction. There are two main types of PCD in plants - autolytic PCD, which involves rapid cytoplasm clearance after vacuole rupture, and non-autolytic PCD where death occurs prior to vacuole rupture. PCD plays essential roles in plant development and defense. The purpose of developmental PCD is to regulate cell division and shape tissues and organs. Defensive PCD helps control invading microbes. Biochemical changes involved in PCD regulation include the action of various proteases and the vacuole. PCD occurs in many developmental processes including reproduction, seed and root development, and senescence.
The document discusses the key components of plant disease development: the host, pathogen, environment, time, and human factors. It explains how their interactions are described by the disease triangle and pyramid models. Specifically, it outlines how each of these components - the characteristics of the plant host, pathogen, environment, and human activities - can influence the development and spread of plant diseases.
1. Mycorrhiza refers to the symbiotic association between fungi and plant roots that was first coined in 1885.
2. Frank originally classified mycorrhiza into two main types - ectomycorrhiza and endomycorrhiza - based on where the fungi penetrate the root. Ectomycorrhiza forms a sheath over roots while endomycorrhiza penetrates cortical root cells.
3. There are several recognized forms of mycorrhiza including vesicular-arbuscular, ectomycorrhizal, and ericoid mycorrhiza which involve different fungal structures and host plant ranges.
Phenomenon and factors of infection in plants nishakataria10
This document discusses the phenomenon of plant infection and methods to control plant diseases. It describes the three phases of pathogenesis in plants: pre-penetration, penetration, and post-penetration. It then lists and explains various biological agents that can infect plants, such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes. Finally, it outlines four main methods to control plant diseases: cultural, physical, chemical, and plant quarantine methods.
Hypersensitivity and its Mechanism summarizes the hypersensitive response (HR) in plants. The HR is a localized cell death response at the site of infection that limits pathogen growth and provides resistance. It involves the recognition of pathogen elicitors by plant receptors, which activates a biochemical reaction cascade and the production of reactive oxygen species and defense compounds. This leads to cell death in infected areas and the acquisition of systemic resistance in other plant tissues through signaling molecules like salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and ethylene. The HR occurs through specific host-pathogen combinations and results in the depolarization of membranes and disintegration of cellular components at the infection site.
This document summarizes induced plant resistance against pathogens. It discusses the historical background of induced resistance being first observed over 100 years ago. It describes different types of induced resistance including systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and induced systemic resistance (ISR). SAR is mediated by salicylic acid and involves pathogenesis-related proteins, while ISR is mediated by jasmonic acid and ethylene. Biological agents like PGPR bacteria and plant extracts can also induce resistance. Signal transduction pathways underlying these responses are triggered upon pathogen recognition. While induced resistance offers opportunities for crop protection, practical applications are currently limited to some plants.
Infection, Invasion, Growth and Reproduction of pathogenAmmad Ahmad
This document discusses the infection, invasion, growth, and reproduction of plant pathogens. It describes how pathogens infect plants through various means such as intracellularly or intercellularly. Successful infections result in symptoms. The incubation period is the time between inoculation and symptom appearance, which depends on factors like the pathogen-host combination and environment. Pathogens invade tissues and spread systematically or locally within the plant. They continue growing and branching out indefinitely. Pathogens reproduce through various means like spores, fission, or eggs. Reproduction rates vary greatly between pathogen types but large numbers can be produced rapidly, facilitating widespread infection.
The document defines different types of mycorrhizal associations between fungi and plant roots that provide benefits to both organisms. It describes arbuscular mycorrhizas formed by Glomeromycota fungi in plant roots, which usually have structures called arbuscules and vesicles. It also discusses ectomycorrhizal associations with a Hartig net between root cells and a fungal mantle on root surfaces. The document provides examples of orchid mycorrhizas with fungal coils inside thin root cells, and ericoid mycorrhizas in the plant family Ericaceae with fungal coils or hyphae in root cells.
This document discusses different types of mycorrhizal associations between fungi and plant roots. The main types discussed are ectomycorrhizae, arbuscular mycorrhizae, orchid mycorrhizae, ericoid mycorrhizae, arbutoid mycorrhizae, and monotropoid mycorrhizae. These associations are typically mutualistic, with fungi helping plants uptake nutrients and water, and plants providing fungi with carbohydrates. Ectomycorrhizal fungi form sheaths around roots and penetrate the cortex, while arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi form structures called arbuscules and vesicles within root cells.
El documento habla sobre los hongos micorrizógenos y sus beneficios. Estos hongos forman asociaciones simbióticas con las raíces de las plantas donde intercambian nutrientes y agua por azúcares. Existen tres tipos principales de micorrizas - ectomicorrizas, ectendomicorrizas y endomicorrizas arbusculares, las cuales son las más comunes y benefician a más del 90% de especies de plantas. Los hongos micorrizógenos promueven el crecimiento de las plantas al mejorar
The document discusses mycorrhizae and their potential as biocontrol agents. It describes the evolution and discovery of mycorrhizal fungi. There are different types of mycorrhizal associations based on the relationship with host plants. The document discusses the distribution of mycorrhizal fungi among host and non-host plants. It explains how vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) can act as biocontrol agents by suppressing soil-borne pathogens through various mechanisms like physiological alterations in host plants, competition for space and nutrients, and changes in root exudates. The mycorrhizal intensity was found to be higher in healthy plants compared to diseased plants in fields studied
Mycorrhizal fungi form mutualistic relationships with the roots of most plant species. They help plants absorb water and mineral nutrients from soil in exchange for carbohydrates. There are two main types of mycorrhizal associations - ectomycorrhizas, which cover tree roots with a sheath and branching structures, and endomycorrhizas, whose thread-like structures penetrate root cells. Mycorrhizal fungi play an important ecological role in nutrient cycling, plant community development, and soil health.
Studies on the mycorrhiza of Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. from Western...IOSR Journals
This study investigated the mycorrhizal association of Geodorum densiflorum, an endangered terrestrial orchid found in Western Ghats of Karnataka, India. Anatomical studies revealed fungal coils of Rhizoctonia solani in the pseudobulb and root cortical cells, indicating continued association. Colonization was extensive in roots. Soil analysis found low phosphate levels despite adequate other nutrients, supporting the role of mycorrhizae under phosphate deficiency. This is the first report of mycorrhizal association in G. densiflorum from India and provides scope for ex situ conservation through fungal inoculation.
The document provides an overview of a presentation given by Dr. Atul Nayyar on mycorrhizal fungi. The presentation covered what mycorrhizal fungi are, the types of mycorrhizae, mycorrhizal research trends, mechanisms of symbiosis between fungi and plants, challenges in producing viable inoculum products, and benefits of mycorrhizae for plant growth including faster establishment, reduced water and fertilizer needs, and increased disease resistance. Premier Tech was highlighted as having expertise in industrial scale production of mycorrhizal inoculants.
Las micorrizas son la asociación entre hongos benéficos del suelo y las raíces de las plantas. Ayudan a las plantas a absorber nutrientes como fósforo y nitrógeno de forma más eficiente. Proporcionan beneficios como una mejor tolerancia a la sequía, control biológico de enfermedades y agregación del suelo. Muchos cultivos como el maíz, arroz y tomate rinden más cuando están asociados con micorrizas.
O documento discute micorrizas, associações simbióticas entre fungos e raízes de plantas. Ele descreve o que são micorrizas, sua classificação em ecto e endomicorrizas, e aspectos biológicos, de inoculação, produtos comerciais e impactos econômicos. Conclui destacando o potencial do Brasil para uso de micorrizas na agricultura sustentável.
IOSR Journal of Applied Chemistry (IOSR-JAC) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of applied chemistry and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in Chemical Science. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
PK09:Status of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in banana-based farming systems o...CSM _BGBD biodiversity
This document discusses a study of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in banana farming systems in Rwanda, Uganda, and Kenya. The study found that:
1) AMF colonized banana roots across different soil types, with higher colonization correlated with higher rainfall and lower tillage intensity.
2) Soil from sites with lowest disturbance (zero tillage and intensive mulching) had the highest AMF species diversity.
3) There were no significant differences in root colonization between banana genotypes.
The conclusions call for exploiting indigenous AMF diversity and promoting less disturbing soil management to increase AMF presence, particularly under marginal conditions.
Ectomycorrhizal fungi form mutualistic associations with plant roots. They produce a soil mycelium network linking roots and fruiting bodies. Ectomycorrhizal roots are characterized by a fungal mantle and Hartig net. Structural diversity includes mushrooms, truffles, and crust fungi. Ectomycorrhizal associations benefit plants through improved nutrient acquisition and stress resistance. Common anatomical terms are mantle, Hartig net, and short and long roots.
The document discusses arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) fungi and their role in crop plants. AM fungi form a symbiotic relationship with plant roots, increasing the surface area for nutrient absorption. Through their hyphae, AM fungi can access phosphorus and micronutrients beyond the root zone and transport them to the plant. Nearly 90% of crop plants form AM associations, which enhance yields by supplementing nutrients like phosphorus. Common AM fungal genera include Glomus, Gigaspora, and Scutellospora.
A creative way to learn about the bacteria Rhizobium with a touch of Bollywood. For young, science minds. This was a part of my college curriculum as I am studying Microbiology Hons.
Rhizobia are symbiotic diazotrophs (prokaryotic organisms that carry out dinitrogen fixation) that form a symbiotic association with legumes. This association is symbiotic in that both the plant and rhizobia benefit. The plant supplies the rhizobia with energy in the form of amino acids and the rhizobia fix nitrogen from the atmosphere for plant uptake. The reduction of atmospheric dinitrogen into ammonia is the second most important biological process on earth after photosynthesis (Sylvia, 2005). The actual process of dinitrogen fixation can only be carried out by diazotrophs that contain the enzyme dinitrogenase. Nitrogen is the most critical nutrient needed to support plant growth. Unfortunately, atmospheric dinitrogen (78% of air we breathe) is extremely stable due to triple bonds which can only be broken by energy intensive ways. These include electrical N2 fixation by lightning where oxides of N come to ground with rain, the Haber-Bosch process in industrial fertilizer production, and biological N2 fixation in legumes by bacterial symbionts such as Rhizobium etli. Biological fixation of nitrogen was the leading form of annual nitrogen input until the last decade of the 20th century (Russelle, 2008). It is gaining attention once again as sustainability becomes a central focus to feed a world population of over 7 billion people.
This document discusses mycorrhiza, which is a symbiotic relationship between fungi and plant roots. The fungus colonizes plant roots and provides minerals and water to the plant in exchange for carbohydrates. This relationship benefits plant growth in nutrient-poor soils. Many important crop plants form mycorrhizal relationships, including vegetables, fruits, field crops, trees, and ornamental plants. The mycelium of the fungus has a large surface area and can access nutrients and water that plant roots cannot reach on their own. Proper application of mycorrhizal inoculants can improve plant establishment and growth, especially in challenging soil conditions.
The document discusses microbiology in terrestrial environments. It begins by defining terrestrial as living on land, and environment as surroundings. It then discusses the various types of terrestrial habitats like deserts and forests. [END SUMMARY]
Criteria of Most Efficient EcM Strains for Afforestation and Reforestation Pr...Muhammad Usman Mughal
This document discusses criteria for selecting the most efficient ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungal strains for use in afforestation and reforestation programs. It defines afforestation and reforestation and introduces key selection criteria like compatibility with host plants, growth promotion effects, persistence in soil. Experimental methods are described for testing fungal isolates like glasshouse trials. A sample experiment shows Pisolithus tinctorius promoted growth in Eucalyptus species. Tables list efficient ECM fungi identified for various tree species. The use of ECM fungi in afforestation/reforestation programs and reasons for potential failures in field plantings are also summarized.
This document provides information about vermicomposting and earthworms. It discusses that vermicomposting is a method of preparing compost using earthworms, which consume biomass and excrete nutrient-rich casts. It describes the bed and pit methods of vermicomposting and introduces the three types of earthworms - epigeic, anecic, and endogeic. The document outlines favorable conditions for earthworms and advantages of vermicomposting such as efficient organic waste conversion and providing a stable soil conditioner.
The document provides an overview of microbial ecology in soil. It discusses soil as an environment for microorganisms and describes the typical soil habitat. It explains that soils can be divided into mineral and organic types and notes the key components of vegetated soils. The document also examines soil organic matter and the roles of microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, and others in soils. It discusses various microbe-plant interactions such as those in the rhizosphere, phyllosphere, and mycorrhizal associations.
This document provides an overview of soil biodiversity and the roles of different soil organisms. It discusses microorganisms, microfauna, mesofauna, macrofauna and their functions. Key groups include earthworms, termites, ants and their roles in nutrient cycling, soil structure formation, and carbon sequestration. Land use and management practices can positively or negatively impact soil biodiversity. Maintaining soil organic matter and reducing tillage are important for soil health improvement.
1. Several studies examined soil micro-arthropods as indicators of environmental conditions. Abundance and diversity of mites and springtails decreased with increasing forest fire severity and pollution levels.
2. Leg deformities in oribatid mites increased with heavy metal pollution from a smelter. Some mite species were less abundant in polluted areas while others thrived.
3. In urban parks, springtail species richness and abundance decreased with increasing pollution. One species dominated the most contaminated site.
4. Application of the pesticide dimethoate reduced soil micro-arthropod populations by 59-69% compared to controls. Declines were greatest where dimethoate and metabol
The document analyzes and compares the chemical and microbial composition of farm soil and forest soil. Physiochemical parameters, organic content, and microorganism populations were analyzed. The farm soil was found to be more suitable for crop growth but lacked organic matter, while the forest soil had high organic content but a pH that could become too acidic for some microbes. Different soils favor different microbes depending on properties like pH and organic content. The analysis provides insights into improving the soils by adding organic matter or lime.
This document discusses mycorrhizae, which are symbiotic associations between fungi and plant roots. It describes the different types of mycorrhizae including endomycorrhizae, ectomycorrhizae, and ectendomycorrhizae. Applications of mycorrhizae include increasing nutrient uptake, plant diversity, and resistance to diseases and drought. The document also discusses methods for isolating and mass producing mycorrhizal fungi for use as biofertilizers to improve soil health and crop yields.
This document discusses soil reclamation through biotechnology. It describes the key constituents and layers of soil, as well as common soil problems like salinity, erosion, and contamination. Biological treatment methods are proposed, including bioremediation using indigenous or modified microbes. Microbial treatment involves stimulating soil microbes or adding specific microorganisms to degrade pollutants. Genetic engineering can enhance plants and microbes used for phytoremediation and biostimulation. Overall, the document advocates using biotechnology to restore degraded soils in a sustainable manner.
This document discusses the microbial flora of soil. It defines soil microflora as microorganisms that contribute to the biological properties of soil, including bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa. The five major groups interact and form a soil food web, with bacteria and fungi serving important roles in decomposition. Physical and chemical factors like pH and nutrients influence the growth and activity of soil microflora. The microflora are then classified and examples are given of bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, and their functions in the soil ecosystem.
Plant microbe interaction by dr. ashwin chekeAshwin Cheke
PLANT MICROBE – INTERACTIONS AND THEIR MUTUAL BENEFITS IN ENHANCING SOIL HEALTH AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION ,
IT ALSO INCREASE CROP PRODUCTIVITY AND IMPROVE SOIL HEALTH
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research (IJCER) is dedicated to protecting personal information and will make every reasonable effort to handle collected information appropriately. All information collected, as well as related requests, will be handled as carefully and efficiently as possible in accordance with IJCER standards for integrity and objectivity.
Biogeochemical anomalies occur where vegetation contains abnormally high concentrations of metals. Different plant species take up different amounts of inorganic materials from the soil based on factors like their root depth and water source. Plants with deep roots directly over an ore deposit can show superjacent biogeochemical anomalies of mobility elements. Biogeochemical surveys first determine the optimal plant species, plant part, and elements to sample through an orientation survey. They preferably use deep-rooted plants and can employ grid or scattered sampling points.
Biogeochemical anomalies occur where vegetation contains abnormally high concentrations of metals. Different plant species take up different amounts of inorganic materials from the soil based on factors like their root depth and water source. Plants with deep roots directly over an ore deposit can show biogeochemical anomalies from taking up mobile elements in soil solutions. Biogeochemical surveys first determine the optimal plant species, plant part, and elements to sample through an orientation survey. They then involve systematically collecting and analyzing plant samples according to a grid or vegetation distribution to identify anomalies.
Bryophytes can serve as bioindicators of soil, water, and air pollution due to their simple structure and sensitivity. They absorb heavy metals and retain pollutants, allowing them to indicate the level of pollution in the environment. Specific bryophyte species tolerate or are sensitive to different types and levels of pollution, making them useful for monitoring changes. Bryophytes growing near water absorb and show effects of water pollution, while terrestrial bryophytes are impacted by air pollution levels and acidification. Their habitat and growth is altered in response to pollution.
Farmers’ best friend, earthworm has been existent at least since the past 20 million years. Needless to say, they have been faithfully releasing the organic nutrients from the dead tissues back into the soil and thus making it available to the living organisms. They have an important roll in organic farming.
Earthworm Secret
Earthworms feed on the decaying organic matter and survive in soil. During digestion in the alimentary canal, all the organic waste gets transformed into natural fertilizer. The pH is neutral and it is an odorless organic matter. After digestion, the undigested food is excreted. There is a thin oily layer on the excreted material or casting which takes as much as two months to erode. In other words, the castings that are rich in plant nutrients are made available gradually since they are released slowly into the soil. Hence they last longer. These castings also contain microbes and hence the process of decomposition is continued through microbial action outside the body of the earthworms.
What is Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting
Biologically, it is defined as the process of turning organic debris into worm castings that play a crucial role in increasing the fertility of soil. These castings contain seven times more potash, five times more nitrogen and 1.5 times more calcium than what is found in the topsoil. In addition they have better moisture retention capacity, aeration, porosity and structure than the topsoil. The water absorption capacity of the soil is enhanced thanks to the burrowing action of the earthworm, and the organic content in the castings. Research has shown the castings to hold nine times their weight in water.
Objective of Vermicomposting Project
The main objective of vermicomposting project is to produce organic manure of exceptional quality for the organically starved soil. Agricultural wastes, wastes from dairy and animal farms are usually dumped into at places resulting in a foul mess. By vermicomposting these wastes, they are not only utilized efficiently but also help in making a value-added product.
Types of Earthworm and Classification
Study of earthworms was pioneered by Charles Darwin. Taking the cue, Barrett and George Oliver carried out an extensive study and demonstrated the benefits of earthworms in agriculture. Barrett was the first person to grow earthworms on a commercial scale.
Totally there are 386 different varieties of earthworms that have been identified that are broadly classified into 3 categories, viz. epigeic, endogeic and diageic. This classification is based on their feeding habits, habitat in soil strata, response to the soil conditions and defecation activities.
Epigeic
Thriving on soil surface, they convert the organic waste into humus very quickly.
They have a high metabolic activity but it lasts only for a limited period.
They need a huge amount of organic content as a part of their feed and thus ideal for commercial vermicompost project.
Although they a
Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal status on some medicinal plants of Go...inventionjournals
Medicinal plants are important for our existence that supplies us many components for drug formulation. In nature the plant of particular kind invades with so many microorganisms. Among them one beneficial one is Va-mycorrhizal fungi. It helps in various ways to promote growth and yield of biomass better in natural habitats. So, to promote growth in garden or manmade environment application of VA-fungi as biofertilizer is beneficial. In this study 41 medicinal plants have been studied and application of VAM fungi inocula on Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. have been done. Monsoon showed highest colonization percentage followed by winter and summer where as spore density showed highest during winter followed by summer and monsoon.
Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal status on some medicinal plants of Go...inventionjournals
Medicinal plants are important for our existence that supplies us many components for drug formulation. In nature the plant of particular kind invades with so many microorganisms. Among them one beneficial one is Va-mycorrhizal fungi. It helps in various ways to promote growth and yield of biomass better in natural habitats. So, to promote growth in garden or manmade environment application of VA-fungi as biofertilizer is beneficial. In this study 41 medicinal plants have been studied and application of VAM fungi inocula on Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. have been done. Monsoon showed highest colonization percentage followed by winter and summer where as spore density showed highest during winter followed by summer and monsoon.
This document discusses soil environments and microbial dynamics. It covers the composition of soil including mineral matter, organic matter, pore space, and microbes. It then discusses soil microbiology and the distinct phases of soil microbiology including the ecological, experimental/physiological, agronomical, and pedological phases. It provides the history and development of microbiology focusing on key scientists and their contributions. It also discusses the different types of microbes found in soil including bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, protozoa, and their populations in soil.
The Indus Valley Civilization flourished around 2500 BCE along the Indus River valley in what is now Pakistan and northwest India. Two major cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, had sophisticated urban planning with streets laid out in grids and advanced sanitation systems, suggesting well-established civilized society. While much remains unknown about the civilization's decline, potential factors included floods, earthquakes, changing river courses, and invasions by outsiders.
This document discusses weather and climate, defining weather as the atmospheric conditions in an area over a short period of time as measured by temperature, pressure, humidity, wind, and precipitation. It defines climate as the weather of an area over a long period, typically 30 years. It lists common weather elements and storms, and explains how weather is forecast. It also discusses different climatic zones and the key difference that weather is measured over days while climate is measured over decades.
This presentation discusses Oriflame, a Swedish beauty company. It provides an overview of Oriflame's product categories which include hair color, skin care, hair care, fragrances, and color cosmetics. The marketing strategy targets males and females aged 15-50 from middle to upper social classes in over 60 countries. A SWOT analysis finds strengths in its established brand, natural products, and independent sales force. Weaknesses include a lack of mass media promotion and reliance on individual sponsors for distribution. Opportunities exist in expanding distribution networks and developing new products through innovation. Threats include aggressive pricing from competitors and the availability of cheaper alternatives.
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is a fatal neurological disease that causes progressive muscle weakness and paralysis. The exact causes are unknown but may include genetic and environmental factors. Symptoms start with muscle weakness and progress to include slurred speech, difficulty swallowing, and eventually paralysis of the diaphragm leading to respiratory failure. While there is no cure, treatments can help manage symptoms and some medications may slow disease progression. The average life expectancy is 2-5 years from diagnosis but can vary significantly.
The document discusses the history of discoveries related to treatments for parasites and malaria. It describes how Gerhard Domagk discovered sulfonamides in 1939 and was awarded the Nobel Prize. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin. Later, William C. Campbell and Satoshi Omura discovered avermectin, which was developed into the drug ivermectin to treat river blindness and lymphatic filariasis. Youyou Tu discovered the antimalarial properties of artemisinin from the plant Artemisia annua, developing an effective treatment for malaria. Ivermectin and artemisinin-based combination therapies have significantly reduced deaths from these diseases but challenges with resistance remain.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
ANAMOLOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS.pptxRASHMI M G
Abnormal or anomalous secondary growth in plants. It defines secondary growth as an increase in plant girth due to vascular cambium or cork cambium. Anomalous secondary growth does not follow the normal pattern of a single vascular cambium producing xylem internally and phloem externally.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
BREEDING METHODS FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE.pptxRASHMI M G
Plant breeding for disease resistance is a strategy to reduce crop losses caused by disease. Plants have an innate immune system that allows them to recognize pathogens and provide resistance. However, breeding for long-lasting resistance often involves combining multiple resistance genes
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
2. Mycorrhyzia
Word Mycorrhyzia was first used by german
researcher AB Frank in 1885
Myco-fungus Rhiza- Roots
Symbiotic relationship between special soil fungus
and fine plant roots
Mutualistic: both partners are benefited
Fungus: receive carbohydrate and growth factor
Plant: Increase nutrient absorption
Fungus: take role of plant root hair and extension
to root system
3. • Mycorrhzial association involve 3-
way interactions, between host
plant, Mutualistic fungi, and soil
factors
6. Role of Fungus in giving benefit to Tree
• Fungi increase supply of inorganic nutrients to trees
• P are insoluble in most soil
• Extrametrical hyphae extend over large volume of soil
than roots can
• Hormones produced by fungus
• Increase Tolerance of plant
• Increase resistant to infection by root pathogen-provide
physical barrier
7. Isolation and identification of
some Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM)
fungi for phytoremediation in soil
contaminated with paper mill
effluent
Dhitiman Chanda
9. Arbuscular Mycorrhiza
• Is a type of mycorrhizia in which fungus penetrates
the corticle cell of the roots of Vascular plants
• Characterized by formation of unique
structures,arbuscules and vesicles by fungi of
phylum glomerumycota
• Ubiquitous obligate mycobionts forming symbiosis
with terrestrial plant communities
• So far more than 170 species of AM fungi have
been recorded
10. Benefits of AM fungus
Increase rate of plant Survival
Reduce plant stress
Increase Plant nutrient acquisition
Increase Carbon and nitrogen deposition in soil
12. Research
• Arbuscular fungi enhance plant tolerance to varity of stresses including
nutirents, drought, metal toxicity, salinity and pathogens
• Study was taken to access the influence of paper mill effluent mycorrhizal
colonization and mycorrhyzial spore count and regression analysis revealed
that the mycorrhyzial colonization and mycorrhizal spore count are positively
correlated with physio chemical properties of polluted soil
• Glomus was dominant isolated mycorrhizal genus:
species Glomus fasciculatum Glomus macrocarpum, Glomus mosseae
• In this study we know the association between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in
plants growing in polluted soil and use of fungi as bioremediation agent for
polluted site
14. •Location of the study Area
•Collection of Soil Sample
•Collection of Root Samples
•Isolation of Micorrhizal spore
•Soil Physio-chemical analysis
15. Location of Study Area
The study was conducted at the polluted site inside the campus of Hindustan
Paper Corporation Limited, HPC, Assam, India where the solid sludge and
effluent have been dumped.
16. Collection of Soil Sample
• From the polluted soil,the rhizospheric soil samples were randomly selected
and then mixed together to obtain a composoil representative sample.
• The soil samplings were done from January 2012 to October 2013 in three
seasons, i.e., winter (November to February),summer (March to June) and
Monsoon or rainy (July to October)
• The soil samples were brought to the laboratory in sterile condition and stored
in a refrigerator at 4 0C until they were processed.
17. Collection of Root Samples
• Fine roots from plants of the same species were randomly collected and
mixed properly and a composoil root sample was obtained.
• Trypan blue method was followed for the determination of the intensity of root
colonization as described by Phillips and Hayman (1970).
18. Isolation of Micorrhizal spore
• Spore extraction from the soil was carried out using the Wet Sieving and
Decanting Technique by Gerdemann and Nicolson (1963).
• The isolated spores were mounted on glass slide using Polyvinyl Alcohol-
Lactic acid Glycerol (PVLG)
• observed under compound microscope (100- 1000X).Spores were identified
according to the manual of identification of VAM fungi by Schenek and Perez
(1990)
19. Wet Sieving and Decanting Technique by
Gerdemann and Nicolson (1963)
20. Soil Physio-chemical analysis
• The physical chracteristics of soil i.e., Moisture content,soil pH and soil
temperature were estimated for the collected polluted soil samples.
• The chemical chracteristic i.e., N,P,K,Organic C,Mg,Ca etc of the polluted soil
samples were estimated using the technique of Jackson (1985).Concentration
of trace metals.
• i.e.,Cu, Ni and Zn were determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
21. Jackson Technique – Atomic Absorption
Spectroscopy
• Atomic-absorption (AA) Spectroscopy uses the absorption of light to measure
the concentration of gas-phase atoms
• Since samples are usually liquids or solids, the analyte atoms or ions must be
vaporized in a flame.
• The atoms absorbs ultraviolet or visible light and make transitions to higher
electronic energy levels
• The analyte concentration is determined from the amount of absorption
27. Linear Regression Analyses; to find out the
influence of various Edaphic factors on
Mycorrhizal colonization and Mycorrhizal spore
population.
28. Positive correlation coefficient (R) values
between Mycorrhizal spore population with Soil
moisture and Soil Temperature
Nitrogen 0.98
Potassium 0.84
Copper 0.97
Zinc 0.90
Nickel 0.97
29. Positive correlation coefficient (R) values between
Mycorrhizal spore population with Soil moisture
and Soil Temperature
Phosphorus 0.87
Magnesium 0.93
Calcium 0.69
31. Glomus fasiculatum
• 80-120 um in size
• Spore wall is 4.2 m thick,
• Yellow in colour
• the thicker walls often minutely
perforated with thick inward
projections
• hyphal walls occluded at maturity
32. Glomus macrocarpum
• red brown to dark brown (honey
colored)
• 120-400 m in width
• multilayered with cross channels in
walls with lignified in growth from outer
side of the wall(
33. Glomus mosseae
• Spores rarely filled with hyphae
• Yellow in colour
• Funnel shaped hyphae
• hyaline outer wall may not be obvious
34. Discussion
• The presence of trace metals in the polluted soil may be responsible for less
percentage of root colonization in the soil.
• The high alkalinity, pH and higher soil temperaure in the polluted soil is also
responsible for decrease in the number of mycorrhizal spores and root
infection
• The dominance of Glomus sp in the polluted soil is due to its higher metal
tolerance capacity as reported earlier by various workers
35. Conclusion
• AM vesicles are arbuscules can accumulate various trace metals and can
reduce a series of changes in plant physiology, nutrient availability and
microbial composition that may determine the outcome of a phytoremediation
attempt in the metal-stressed environment
• The various metal tolerant mycorrhizal fungi which are found to be evolved as
a trace metal-tolerance and thus they can play a very important role in the
phytoremediation of the polluted environment.
Editor's Notes
Mycorrhzial association involve 3 way interactions, between host plant, Mutualistic fungi and soil factors…
Ectomicorrhiza
Extracellular
Do not penetrate individual cell withen the roots
Endomicorrhyzae
Intracellular Penetrate cell was and cell membrane
Ectomicorrhiza
Extracellular
Do not penetrate individual cell withen the roots
Endomicorrhyzae
Intracellular Penetrate cell was and cell membrane
Ectomycorrhizal associations are mutualistic associations between higher fungi and Gymnosperms or Angiosperms in the plant families listed. ECM associations consist of a soil mycelium system, linking mycorrhizal roots and storage or reproductive structures. Ectomycorrhizal roots (formerly known as ectotrophic or sheathing mycorrhizas) are characterised by the presence of a mantle and Hartig net. An endomycorrhizal fungus forms hyphae that penetrate the cells of plant roots where they form balloon-like vesicles and branch out manifold to develop big surface areas dedicated to the exchange of minerals and carbohydrates. These structures gave rise to the name "arbuscular mycorrhizae" or AM (formerly known as "vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae"). Usually, an endomycorrhizal root cannot be easily distinguished from a nonmycorrhizal root without the help of a microscope and special dying techniques.
Among the various industries, paper and pulp industry is one of the notorious polluters of the environment. It has been categorized as one of the most polluting industries due to discharge of huge volumes of highly colored and toxic waste water (effluent) in the environment causing pollution of land (soil), air and water (Martin, 1998). Most of the paper and pulp industries discharge their insufficiently treated waste water into the river or stream which results in serious problems for aquatic life (Kesalkar et al., 2012)
The most important problem which the pulp and paper industry is facing today is the disposal of tremendous volumes of waste water. This waste water is rich in dissolved solids such as chlorides and sulphates of Na, Ca and varying amounts of suspended organic materials. In addition to these constituents, effluents also contain some trace metals like Hg, Pb, and Cr etc. The effluents are generally alkaline in reaction with high chemical and biological oxygen demands. Thus, the effluents discharge into the water systems make the water unfit for irrigation and potable use and create health hazards.
Treated industrial waste water could be used safely and effectively with proper precautions to increase the soil productivity (Chhonkar et al., 2000). However, despite being a useful source of plant nutrients (N, P, K, Ca etc.), the paper mill effluent often contains high amounts of various organic and inorganic materials, as well as toxic trace elements, which may accumulate in soils in excessive quantities under long term use. Subsequently, these toxic elements may cause severe problems to human beings and animals by entering into the food chains. Untreated industrial effluents contain higher amounts of Cd, Pb, Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe and enhance the concentration of the heavy metals in irrigated surface soils (Xiog et al., 2001). Significantly higher values of EC, organic carbon, available K, exchangeable cations ( Ca2+, Mg2+), exchangeable anion ( Cl-, HCO3-) along with micro-nutrient cation (Cu2+) have been reported in soils being irrigated by paper and pulp industry effluents (Singh et al., 2007). Similarly a decrease in germination percentage, seedling growth and their dry weight in different plants with an increase in paper mill effluent concentration had also been reported (Sundaramoorthy and Kunjithapatham, 2000). Zwieten et al. (2010) reported that the biochar formed due to slow pyrolysis of paper effluent affected the agronomic performance and soil fertility of some soils. Kumar et al. (2010) performed studies to determine the agronomical characteristics of Trigonella foenum-graecum irrigated with different concentrations of Paper mill effluent. Their study revealed that the effluent was rich in some plant nutrients and affected the agronomical characteristics of T. foenum-graecum (cv. Pusa early bunching) and physico-chemical characteristics of the soil as well.
The present investigation was undertaken with the objective to examine the characteristics of effluents from Paper and Pulp industry and to study the impact of lateral seepage on soil properties of agricultural fields adjoining main drains and changes in the elemental composition of plants therein.
Glomus was the most dominant isolated mycorrhizal genus of which three dominant species Glomus fasciculatum Glomus macrocarpum, Glomus mosseae have been identified. The study helps us to develop a protocol by studying the association of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in plants growing in poluted soil and the potential use of these AM fungi as a future bioremediation agent for rehabilitation of the polluted site contaminated with various trace metals.
The phsio-chemical properties of soil were estimated and the maximum moisture content, soil pH, and soil temperature were observed in the rainy seasons followed by summer and winter.The pH was found to be more alkaline in winter seasons in comparison to summer seasons.(Table 1).The all the chemical constituents soil N,K,Organic C (%), Copper (Cu) Nickel (Ni) and Zinc (Zn) were estimated maximum in rainy seasons followed by summer and winter seasons except soil Phosphorus(P),Magnesium(mg) and Calcium (Ca) recorded high values in winter followed by summer and rainy saesons (Table 2).The maximum number of mycorrhizal spore count and percentage of root infection were observed in the rainy seasons followed by summer.In winter seasons, lees number of mycorrhizal spore count and low percentage of root infection were reported