This document provides information on anatomical terminology used to describe body structures and their locations. It discusses the anatomical reference system used including directions, planes, and cavities. It then describes the major cavities of the body and provides details on the musculoskeletal system including bones, joints, and movements. Specific bones such as those in the vertebral column and types of synovial joints are examined in more depth.

1. Functional AnatomyFunctional Anatomy
and Physiologyand Physiology
Bones and JointsBones and Joints
Athlete ManagementAthlete Management
Term 4Term 4

2. Terminology for the Location of BodyTerminology for the Location of Body
StructuresStructures
To allow people to describe the locationTo allow people to describe the location
of the body structure, we use anof the body structure, we use an
Anatomical Reference SystemAnatomical Reference System ..
This reference system has three partsThis reference system has three parts
 DirectionDirection
 PlanePlane
 CavityCavity
To give location of the body part, it is assumedTo give location of the body part, it is assumed
that the body is in thethat the body is in the Anatomical PositionAnatomical Position ..
This is standing erect, facing forward, arms byThis is standing erect, facing forward, arms by
sides and palms forward.sides and palms forward.

3. Body CavityBody Cavity
A body structure may be located in aA body structure may be located in a
particular cavity. Each cavity containsparticular cavity. Each cavity contains
particular organs. For example theparticular organs. For example the
Thoracic cavity contains the heart andThoracic cavity contains the heart and
lungs and is separated from thelungs and is separated from the
abdominal cavity by the diaphragm.abdominal cavity by the diaphragm.
There are five major cavitiesThere are five major cavities
 Pelvic CavityPelvic Cavity
 Abdominal CavityAbdominal Cavity
 Thoracic Cavity –Thoracic Cavity – pleural (lungs)pleural (lungs)
Pericardial (heart)Pericardial (heart)
 Spinal CavitySpinal Cavity
 Cranial CavityCranial Cavity

4. Body structure and Movement of theBody structure and Movement of the
Musculoskeletal System.Musculoskeletal System.
The musculoskeletal system is aThe musculoskeletal system is a
combination of the skeletal, muscularcombination of the skeletal, muscular
and articular systems of the body andand articular systems of the body and
is responsible for the movement andis responsible for the movement and
locomotion of the body.locomotion of the body.
Skeleton – frameworkSkeleton – framework
Muscles – forceMuscles – force
Joints – movementJoints – movement

5. The Skeletal SystemThe Skeletal System
Some facts:Some facts:
 The human skeleton is anThe human skeleton is an endoskeletonendoskeleton ie it lies within theie it lies within the
soft tissue of the body. It differs from thesoft tissue of the body. It differs from the exoskeletonexoskeleton of anof an
insect or crayfish.insect or crayfish.
 It is the major supporting structure of the bodyIt is the major supporting structure of the body
 It is aIt is a living structureliving structure, capable of growth, adaptation and, capable of growth, adaptation and
repair.repair.
 The human body contains a total ofThe human body contains a total of 206 bones.206 bones.
 Bones are approximately 50% solid matter and 50% waterBones are approximately 50% solid matter and 50% water
 By weight, bone is 65% mineral and 35 % cells, fibres and bloodBy weight, bone is 65% mineral and 35 % cells, fibres and blood
vesselsvessels
 Bones are living structures containing blood vessels and nervesBones are living structures containing blood vessels and nerves
that grow, adapt and repairthat grow, adapt and repair
 Bones continue to grow in length until girls are 13 – 15 years andBones continue to grow in length until girls are 13 – 15 years and
boys are 16 – 18 years.boys are 16 – 18 years.
 Is 20% of total body weight.Is 20% of total body weight.

6. Functions of the Skeletal SystemFunctions of the Skeletal System
The skeletal system has four main functions:The skeletal system has four main functions:
 Body MovementBody Movement – there are up to 206 bones in the skeleton, all of which– there are up to 206 bones in the skeleton, all of which
provide sites for muscle attachment. When a muscle contracts, it moves theprovide sites for muscle attachment. When a muscle contracts, it moves the
bones to which it is attached and thus creates movement. Any irregularity on abones to which it is attached and thus creates movement. Any irregularity on a
bone surface provides a possible site for muscle attachment.bone surface provides a possible site for muscle attachment.
 Support and ProtectionSupport and Protection – the skeleton provides support for the body and helps– the skeleton provides support for the body and helps
battle forces of gravity. The strong protective skeletal layer protects vital organsbattle forces of gravity. The strong protective skeletal layer protects vital organs
eg the rib cage protects heart, lungs, kidneys from all but the most traumaticeg the rib cage protects heart, lungs, kidneys from all but the most traumatic
injuries.injuries.
 There are two main types of bone tissue:There are two main types of bone tissue:
 Compact boneCompact bone – found in the shaft (diaphysis of the long bone. It surrounds the– found in the shaft (diaphysis of the long bone. It surrounds the
cavity of the long bone, giving body rigid framework. Collagen is the central ingredientcavity of the long bone, giving body rigid framework. Collagen is the central ingredient
in providing compact bone rigidity and strength.in providing compact bone rigidity and strength.
 Cancellous boneCancellous bone – or spongy bone, provides some of the shock absorption required– or spongy bone, provides some of the shock absorption required
at end of long bones or at edges of more irregular bones.at end of long bones or at edges of more irregular bones.
 Mineral storage sitesMineral storage sites – bone tissue stores a number of minerals important for– bone tissue stores a number of minerals important for
health. Calcium, phosphorus, sodium and potassium all contribute tohealth. Calcium, phosphorus, sodium and potassium all contribute to
maintenance of bone tissue as well as other roles in the body.maintenance of bone tissue as well as other roles in the body.
 Production of blood cellsProduction of blood cells – essential production of new Red Blood Cells– essential production of new Red Blood Cells
occurs within cavity of the long bones. Production levels are high during growthoccurs within cavity of the long bones. Production levels are high during growth
years, reducing as age increases and need for high rates of RBC decreases.years, reducing as age increases and need for high rates of RBC decreases.
Haemoglobin transports 02 inside RBC and much of adult’s bone activity are filledHaemoglobin transports 02 inside RBC and much of adult’s bone activity are filled
with yellow bone marrow, a source of long-term energy.with yellow bone marrow, a source of long-term energy.

7. Bones of the BodyBones of the Body

8. BonesBones

9. BonesBones

10. BonesBones

11. BonesBones

12. BonesBones

13. BonesBones

14. BonesBones

15. Major bones of the SkeletonMajor bones of the Skeleton
The skeleton is divided intoThe skeleton is divided into
two main parts:two main parts:
 Axial skeletonAxial skeleton , which, which
provides a central supportprovides a central support
axis and includes the skull,axis and includes the skull,
vertebral column, sternumvertebral column, sternum
and ribsand ribs
 Appendicular skeletonAppendicular skeleton ,,
which includes the bones ofwhich includes the bones of
the limbs, together with thethe limbs, together with the
shoulder girdle and pelvicshoulder girdle and pelvic
girdle, which support andgirdle, which support and
attach them to the axialattach them to the axial
skeleton.skeleton.

16. Vertebral column:Vertebral column:
The vertebral column has some special features.The vertebral column has some special features.
 Each vertebra has a hollow centre through which the spinal cordEach vertebra has a hollow centre through which the spinal cord
travels which controls most conscious movements within the body.travels which controls most conscious movements within the body.
 Vertebras increase in size as they descend fromVertebras increase in size as they descend from
 cervicalcervical
 thoracicthoracic
 lumbar region.lumbar region.
 Helps to support the weight of the body.Helps to support the weight of the body.
 Movement between the (2) vertebrae is limited, but movement of theMovement between the (2) vertebrae is limited, but movement of the
vertebral column as a whole is great allowing bending and twisting.vertebral column as a whole is great allowing bending and twisting.
 Provides a central structure for maintenance of good posture. This isProvides a central structure for maintenance of good posture. This is
dependent on the person maintaining correct levels of strength anddependent on the person maintaining correct levels of strength and
flexibility of muscles groups that connect with the vertebral column.flexibility of muscles groups that connect with the vertebral column.
 The cervical vertebrae support the head and neck, the thoracicThe cervical vertebrae support the head and neck, the thoracic
vertebra anchor the ribs and strong weight bearing regions towards thevertebra anchor the ribs and strong weight bearing regions towards the
bottom of the vertebral column and provide a stable centre of gravitybottom of the vertebral column and provide a stable centre of gravity
during movement.during movement.

17. The Articular SystemThe Articular System
An articulation is the place ofAn articulation is the place of
union between two or moreunion between two or more
bones.bones.
There are three different types ofThere are three different types of
articulation (or joints),articulation (or joints),
determined by the degree ofdetermined by the degree of
movement they permitmovement they permit
1.1. Fibrous joint (immovableFibrous joint (immovable
joint)joint)
Bones are united by short bandsBones are united by short bands
of fibrous tissue at their ends egof fibrous tissue at their ends eg
skull bones, pelvic bones andskull bones, pelvic bones and
sternum.sternum.

18. The Articular SystemThe Articular System
2.2. Cartilaginous jointCartilaginous joint
(slightly immovable joint)(slightly immovable joint)
Bones are united by a disc ofBones are united by a disc of
tough fibrous cartilagetough fibrous cartilage
separating the ends allowingseparating the ends allowing
a small amount of movementa small amount of movement
eg vertebral column, pubiceg vertebral column, pubic
bones, diaphysis andbones, diaphysis and
epiphysis, ribs joining theepiphysis, ribs joining the
sternum.sternum.

19. The Articular SystemThe Articular System
3.3. Synovial joints (moveableSynovial joints (moveable
joints)joints)
 All synovial joints have aAll synovial joints have a
capsule that encloses thecapsule that encloses the
joint spacejoint space
 Synovial membrane linesSynovial membrane lines
the inner surface of thethe inner surface of the
capsule and secretescapsule and secretes
synovial fluid into the jointsynovial fluid into the joint
cavity to keep it lubricated.cavity to keep it lubricated.
 Shock absorbent articularShock absorbent articular
cartilage is found on thecartilage is found on the
ends of the bones toends of the bones to
protect then from wear andprotect then from wear and
tear.tear.
 Eg knee, hip, elbow jointsEg knee, hip, elbow joints

20. Types of Synovial JointsTypes of Synovial Joints

21. Types of Synovial JointsTypes of Synovial Joints
Hinge Joint
Pivot Joint
Ovoid (ellipsoid) joint
Gliding (plane) joint
Saddle Joint
Ball and Socket joint
JOINT TYPEJOINT TYPE DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION EXAMPLEEXAMPLE
Allows back and forthAllows back and forth
movement, such asmovement, such as
bending andbending and
straightening.straightening.
Uniaxial.Uniaxial.
Knee, knuckle, ankle andKnee, knuckle, ankle and
elbowelbow
Allows rotation only.Allows rotation only.
Uniaxial.Uniaxial.
Between atlas and axis,Between atlas and axis,
between radius andbetween radius and
humerus.humerus.
Allows back and forthAllows back and forth
and side to sideand side to side
movement,movement,
Biaxial.Biaxial.
Between carpals andBetween carpals and
radius; betweenradius; between
metacarpal and phalange.metacarpal and phalange.
Flat bones slide onFlat bones slide on
each other. Side toeach other. Side to
side and back andside and back and
forth movement.forth movement.
Biaxial.Biaxial.
Between carpals, tarsals,Between carpals, tarsals,
ribs and thoracic vertebrae.ribs and thoracic vertebrae.
Allows back and forthAllows back and forth
and side to sideand side to side
movements.movements.
Biaxial.Biaxial.
Between carpal andBetween carpal and
metacarpals of thumbmetacarpals of thumb
Allows side to side,Allows side to side,
back and forth andback and forth and
Hip and shoulder joint;Hip and shoulder joint;
head of femur/humerus fitshead of femur/humerus fits

22. Structures within the SynovialStructures within the Synovial
JointsJoints

23. Movements of the SynovialMovements of the Synovial
JointsJoints

24. Movements of the Synovial Joints and their definitionsMovements of the Synovial Joints and their definitions
FlexionFlexion A decrease in the angle of a jointA decrease in the angle of a joint
ExtensionExtension In increase in the angle of a jointIn increase in the angle of a joint
Lateral FlexionLateral Flexion Flexion sidewaysFlexion sideways
HyperextensionHyperextension Extension beyond that seen in the anatomical positionExtension beyond that seen in the anatomical position
Horizontal flexionHorizontal flexion Flexion in the shoulder joint where the arm moves close toFlexion in the shoulder joint where the arm moves close to
the body in a horizontal planethe body in a horizontal plane
Horizontal extensionHorizontal extension Extension in the shoulder joint where the arm moves awayExtension in the shoulder joint where the arm moves away
from the body in a horizontal planefrom the body in a horizontal plane
AbductionAbduction Movement of a body part away from the midline of theMovement of a body part away from the midline of the
bodybody
AdductionAdduction Movement of a body part back toward the midline of theMovement of a body part back toward the midline of the
bodybody
RotationRotation Movement of a body part around its longitudinal axisMovement of a body part around its longitudinal axis
PronationPronation Rotation of the palm of the hand downwards or inwardsRotation of the palm of the hand downwards or inwards
SupinationSupination Rotation of the palm of the hand upwards or outwardsRotation of the palm of the hand upwards or outwards
Plantar flexionPlantar flexion An increase in the angle between the foot and the tibia inAn increase in the angle between the foot and the tibia in
the ankle joint (toes pointed)the ankle joint (toes pointed)
Dorsi flexionDorsi flexion A decrease in the angle between the foot and the tibia inA decrease in the angle between the foot and the tibia in
the ankle jointthe ankle joint
ElevationElevation Upward movement of the scapulaUpward movement of the scapula
DepressionDepression Downward movement of the scapulaDownward movement of the scapula
InversionInversion Movement of the sole of the foot inwards at the ankleMovement of the sole of the foot inwards at the ankle
EversionEversion Movement of the side of the foot outwards at the ankleMovement of the side of the foot outwards at the ankle
CircumductionCircumduction Movement of the end of the bones in a circular motionMovement of the end of the bones in a circular motion