The document discusses various theories of motivation, including drive theory, incentive theory, and optimal-level theory, while also addressing biological, social, and sexual motivations. It explores the concepts of aggression and conflict, highlighting the importance of understanding motivation in the context of mental health and psychiatric implications. The text emphasizes how motivation influences behavior and goal-directed actions, and it refers to certain psychological references for further insight.

1. MOTIVATION
DR HARI RAM SEDAI
1ST
YEAR RESIDENT
PSYCHIATRY, NMCTH

2. Contents
INTRODUCTION
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
BIOLOGICAL MOTIVATION
AGRESSION
MASLOW’S HIEARCHY OF NEED
CONFLICT & FRUSTRATION
REFERENCES

3. Introduction
 Motive
• A reason for doing something
• Cannot be observed directly but are inferred from behavior
• Influenced by perception, learning, ability, and personality traits
• If our inferences about motives are correct they may help in
explaining behavior

4. Definition
• Driving and pulling forces which result in persistent behavior directed toward
particular goals (CT Morgan et al.)
• It is regarded as something which prompts, compels and energizes an individual to act
or behave in a particular fashion at a particular time for attaining some specific goal
or purpose
(G. Mohanty)
• Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives, desires, needs,
wishes, and similar forces that induce an individual or a group of people to work
(Koontz and O’Donnell)

5. Theories of Motivation
Drive Theory
Incentive Theory
Opponent-process Theory
Optimal-level Theory

6. Drive Theory
• Also known as Push Theory, as the behaviour is pushed towards
goal by driving states
• The engagement of behaviour will lead to goal and reduces the
intensity of drive
• Drives can be innate or learned
• Apply best for biological motives (hunger, thirst, sex)

7. Motivation Cycle

8. Incentive Theory
• Goal objects pull behavior towards them (Pull Theory)
• Incentive: A thing that motivates or encourages someone to do
something
• Two people may act differently based entirely on the types of
incentives

9. Types of Incentives
• Economic incentives – material
• Social incentives – reputation
• Moral incentives – conscience
• Positive incentives: individual expects pleasure from attainment
• Negative incentives: individual expects pleasure from avoidance

10. Opponent Process Theory
Hedonistic views of Motivation
Motivated to Seek goals which give us good emotional feeling and
to avoid those resulting in displeasure
• Emotional motivating states are followed by opposite states
• This opponent process sets in after the primary process is quietened
• With repeated exposure, the primary process becomes weaker while the
opponent process is strengthened

11. Fig: Opponent processes in motivation. The duration of emotion provoking situation is shown by black bars

12. Optimal Level Theories
• Certain optimal or best level of arousal
that is pleasurable
• If arousal levels drop below the optimal
levels, we seek stimulation to elevate
them and vice versa
• Motivated to maintain this optimal level
of arousal
• Also known as “Just Right Theory”

13. Biological motivation
• Rooted in physiological state of body
• Hunger, thirst, sex, temperature regulation, sleep, pain
avoidance
• Triggered by disbalance in homeostasis
• Automatic physiological mechanism to maintain it
• Supplemented by motivated behaviors

14. Hunger Motivation
• Primary basic motive necessary for life
• Earlier, was thought to be activated by stomach contractions
• Now, role of nutrients in blood circulation implemented
• Levels and rate of use (set point)
• Blood sugar increases and insulin decreases motivation
• External factors: sight and smell, and learned behavior

15. Hunger centre is present in Hypothalamus
 Two region of Hypothalamus:
a) Ventromedial Hypothalamus –Satiety centre
b) Lateral Hypothalamus - Excitatory centre
 Stop eating signals provided by:
• Nutrient receptors in stomach
• Cholecystokinin
 Other centres and mechanisms
• Hypothalamus: monitoring fuel supplies, metabolism
• Amygdala: emotional regulation of eating

16. Thirst Drive
• Stimulus factors play a vital role (dry mouth, taste)
• Double depletion hypothesis
• Loss of water from cells (cellular dehydration thirst)
• Reduction of blood volume (Hypovolemia)
• Regulated by RAAS which has feedback mechanism in hypothalamus via
Osmoreceptors
• Over drinking also regulated by receptors in stomach and intestine

17. Sexual Motivation
• Powerful biological motive
• Not necessary for survival
• More under influence of sensory information
• May also be termed as a social and psychological motive

18. Organizational role:
• Females: Estrogens mainly estradiol (ovaries and adrenal glands)
• Males: Androgens mainly testosterone (testes and adrenal glands)
• Body structure: size, shape, secondary sexual characteristics
• Brain: Behavior, cyclical release of hormones from hypothalamus
during menstrual cycle

19. Activational role:
• Higher levels of circulating sex hormones triggers sexual behavior
 Men
• Certain level of testosterone must be present
• Above threshold level, little or no effect on motivation
• Castration: decreased sexual drive
 Women
• Some studies show peak in sexual interest at midpoint of menstrual cycle
(Estrogen is high)
• Some studies show peak after cycle (estrogen is low)
• Little or no change after menopause (low estrogen)
 Other triggers: external stimulus, habits and attitudes

20. Social motivation
• Learned in social groups (family)
• Usually involve other people
• Determine much of what a person does
• Persist, never fully satisfies
• Learned, therefore differs from individual to another
• Important component of personality

21. McClelland’s
Theory,1971

22. Characteristics of Achievement Motivation
Setting realistic goals: Achievement: Motivated people set goals that are realistic and work
towards them
Perseverance: They don't give up when faced with a difficult situation
Using feedback: They use feedback to guide their actions
Pursuing professional goals: They are more likely to pursue professional goals and develop a
professional identity
Efficiency: They are interested in efficiency, finding shortcuts, and getting the same result
with less effort
Working well under moderate risk: They work well under moderate risk and seek new
information

23. Aggression
 Hostile aggression
• Any form of behaviour directed toward the goal of harming or
injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such
treatment
 Instrumental aggression
• Uses aggression as a way of satisfying some other motive
• Aggression is used as a way to satisfying some other motives

26. Characteristics of Need
• The lower the need is in the hierarchy, the greater are its
strength, potency, and priority. The higher needs are weaker needs
• Higher needs appear later in life. Physiological and safety needs
arise in infancy
• Belongingness and esteem needs arise in adolescence
• The need for self-actualization does not arise until midlife

27. • Because higher needs are less necessary for actual survival, their
gratification can be postponed
• Failure to satisfy a higher need does not necessarily produce a
crisis
• Failure to satisfy a lower need does produce a crisis

28. CHARACTERS OF SELF ACTUALIZED INDIVIDUALS
Realism and
Acceptance
Problem-
Centric
Autonomy
Spontaneity
and Simplicity
Continued
Freshness of
Appreciation
Peak
Experiences
Deep
Interpersonal
Relationships
Democratic
Character
Structure
Ethical
Sensitivity
Creativity
Resistance to
Enculturation
Humour Purposefulness
Effort Toward
Goal

29. Frustration and Conflicts
Frustration: Blocking of behavior directed towards a goal
• Conflicts among simultaneously aroused motives most important
reason
People unable to achieve their important goals feel:
• Depressed, fearful, anxious, guilty, angry

30. Causes of Frustration
 Environmental Frustration:
• An obstacles may be something physical, such as a locked door or
lack of money, or may be with people
 Personal Frustration:
• Unattainable goals can be important source of frustration because
they are beyond personal abilities
 Conflict-Produced Frustration:
• The expression of one motive interferes with the expression of
other motives

31. Types of Conflict
Approach-Approach Conflict
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict

32. Approach – Approach Conflict
• Conflict b/w two positive goals, equally attractive at the same
time
• Resolved by satisfying 1 goal at a time, or by giving up on one
• Easy to resolve, generates little emotional behavior
GOAL+ PERSON GOAL+

33. Avoidance-Avoidance
• Involves two negative goals
• Two kinds of behavior
Vacillation of thought and behavior (inconsistency)
Running away (regression)
• Emotions may be involved: fear, anger
GOAL - PERSON GOAL -

34. Approach-Avoidance
• Most complex and difficult to resolve
• Person is both attracted and repelled by the same goal object
• Vacillation is common
• May eventually reach goal but frustration build until then
• May cause emotional responses such as fear, anger, resentment
even after achieving goal
PERSON GOAL ±

35. Multiple Approach-Avoidance
• Many of life’s decisions is of this type
• Several goals with approach and avoidance present simultaneously
• Answer depends on relative strength between them
• Such feelings are internalized due to training in social values or
conscience (“right” or ‘wrong”)
• Hardest to deal with, may cause behavioral problems
GOAL ± PERSON GOAL ±

36. PSYCHIATRIC IMPLICATIONS OF MOTIVATION
Motivation plays a critical role in psychiatry, influencing the
diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of various mental health
conditions
Understanding the psychiatric implications of motivation helps
clinicians to address factors that drive or hinder patients
engagement in therapy, adherence to treatment, and overall
well-being

37. References
• Introduction to Psychology 7th
edition, C.T Morgan
• General psychology 21st
edition, S.K Mangal