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Motivation

This document provides an overview of motivation theories including: - Maslow's hierarchy of needs which identifies physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. It proposes that lower level needs must be satisfied before higher needs. - McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y which describe assumptions managers have about employees - Theory X sees employees as lazy and Theory Y sees them as ambitious and self-motivated. - Herzberg's two-factor theory which identifies motivators related to job content and hygiene factors related to job context that prevent dissatisfaction but don't motivate. - McClelland's need theory which identifies three needs - need for achievement, power, and affiliation

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•Latin word -MOVERE’ – To move Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates a behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive. (F.Luthens,1995)
NEEDS DRIVES INCENTIVES BASIC MOTIVATION PROCESS
Need Either physiological or psychological imbalance Drives •Set up to alleviate needs. •Action oriented •Providing an energizing thrust toward reaching an incentive •Ex: Hunger/thirst drive Incentive Anything that alleviate & reduce a drive
MOTIVES •Inferences from observation of behaviour eg: a student works hard at all task that come along, we might infer motive to achieve. •Tools for explanation of behaviour Eg: why are you to college? Want to learn, need a college degree, desire for friends etc •Helps to predicts future behaviour eg: if u know a person have a need for achievement you can predict his behaviour (C.T Morgan,1986)
Motives Primary General Secondary (F.Luthens,1995)
PRIMARY (physiological/bio logical/unlearned) GENERAL General/Stimulus SECONDARY Unlearned and physiological based Unlearned and non-physiological based Learned and non-physiological based •Hunger •Thirst •Sleep •Sex •Avoidance of pain •Maternal concern Curiosity Manipulation Activity Affection Power Achievement Affiliation Security Status
SIGNIFICANCE OF MOTIVATION Performance = motivation X ability X situational factors More motivated the employees, more the performance •Motivation is important in getting and retaining people. Motivation tools act as the glue that links individuals to organizational goals •Employee motivation is directly linked to business profits, and the more self-motivated your employees are, the more differentiated and successful you will be as a business.
• Hierarchy of needs theory • McGregor's Theory X and Theory • Herzberg 2 factor theory • Alderfer ERG needs • McClelland's Need Theory CONTENT THEORIES • Vroom Valence/expectancy • Porter and Lawler Model PROCESS THEORIES • Equity theory • Goal setting theory • Attribution theory • Cognitive evaluation theory • Reinforcement theory CONTEMPORARY THEORIES
CONTENT THEORIES •Determine what it is that motivates people at work. •Identify the needs/drives that people have and how these needs are prioritized. •Referred as ‘static’ because they incorporate only one or few points in time and are either past- present time oriented.
MASLOW HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY (A.H. Maslow,1943) •Proposed in the 1943 in paper "A Theory of Human Motivation," by Abraham Maslow •There is a hierarchy of five needs— physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. •Satisfaction-progression principle
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs deprivation--domination-- gratification---activation
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS Are the physical requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met, the human body cannot function properly and will ultimately fail. Examples: Hunger, Thirst, Sleep, Sex etc
SAFETY NEEDS •With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual’s safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. •These needs have to do with people’s yearning for a predictable orderly world in which perceived unfairness and inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare. •Safety and security needs include: • Personal security • Financial security • Health and well-being • Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts
SOCIAL NEEDS •After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs are social and involve feelings of belonging. This involves emotionally based relationships like friendship, intimacy, family etc. •Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams etc. •They need to love and be loved by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. •This need for belonging depending on the strength of the peer pressure
ESTEEM NEEDS •All humans have a need to be respected and to have self-esteem and self respect. •Focus on need to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. •There can be two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need for self-respect, the need for strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom.
SELF-ACTUALIZATION •This level of need pertains to what a person’s full potential is and realizing that potential. •Maslow describes this desire as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.
CRITICISMS •Maslow's theory is a theory of human behavior in general rather than work behavior •Little evidence has been found for the ranking of needs that Maslow described, or even for the existence of a definite hierarchy at all. (Wahba, M. A., & Bridwell, L. G.,1976) •Needs are not independent to one another, they overlaps (Kenrick, D.T., et.al,2010)
•The position and value of sex on the pyramid is in the physiological needs category along with food and breathing; it lists sex solely from an individualistic perspective, it forgets the emotional, familial and evolutionary aspects of the same. (Kenrick, D.T., et.al,2010) •Belongingness is the driving force of human behavior, not a third tier activity. •Needs are interactive, dynamic system anchored in the ability to make social connections.( Steve Denning, 2012)
McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor, D. ,1960) •Douglas McGregor, an American social psychologist, proposed his famous X-Y theory in his 1960 book 'The Human Side Of Enterprise'. •McGregor's ideas suggest that there are two fundamental approaches to managing people. •Theory X and Theory Y have to do with the perceptions managers hold on their employees, not the way they generally behave. It is attitude not attributes.
Theory X It assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can and that they inherently dislike work. As a result of this, management believes that workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of controls developed. Theory Y In this theory, management assumes employees may be ambitious and self-motivated and exercise self-control. It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties. According to them work is as natural as play.
•Assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can. Workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of control put in place. • A hierarchical structure is needed, with narrow span of control at each level, for effective management. •Employees will show little ambition without an enticing incentive program and will avoid responsibility whenever they can. •Think most employees are only out for themselves and their sole interest in the job is to earn money. •Tend to blame employees in most situations, without questioning the systems, policy, or lack of training which could be the real cause of failures. •Tend to take a rather pessimistic view of their employees. •Adopt a more authoritarian style based on the threat of punishment. Theory X
•Assumes that employees are ambitious, self-motivated, anxious to accept greater responsibility and exercise self-control, self- direction, autonomy and empowerment. •Believes that employees enjoy their work and believe that, given a chance, employees have the desire to be creative at their work place and become forward looking. •There is a chance for greater productivity by giving employees the freedom to perform to the best of their abilities, without being bogged down by rules. •Believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong motivation in itself. A theory Y manager will try to remove the barriers that prevent workers from fully actualizing themselves . Theory Y
SIGNIFICANCE •Theory remains a valid basic principle from which to develop positive management style and techniques. •Remains central to organizational development, and to improving organizational culture. •A simple reminder of the natural rules for managing people, which under the pressure of day-to-day business are all too easily forgotten. •Theory X might be more suitable in some crisis situations but less appropriate in more routine and formalized situations. In India Theory X may still be useful at the lower levels of organisation.
HERZBERG’S 2 FACTOR THEORY (Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. 1959) •It was developed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg • Also known as Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory and dual- factor theory •Extended the work of Maslow •Study on about 200 accountants and engineers employed by firms in and around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania using critical incident method.
•Identified job satisfiers are related with job content •Job dissatisfiers are related with job context •2 Factors identified- •Hygiene Factors- job dissatisfiers •Motivators- job satisfiers
HYGIENE FACTORS •Preventive and environmental in nature •Roughly equivalent to Maslow's lower level needs •It prevents dissatisfaction, but they do not lead to satisfaction •It cannot motivate MOTIVATERS •Factors that motivate people on the job •Roughly equivalent to Maslow's higher needs
Implications •Many organisations try to motivate employees with hygiene factors like salary. •Hygiene factors are necessary for employee retention, but it cannot motivate talented employees to stay with organisations for long.
CRITICISMS •The theory appears to be bound to the critical incident method •The reliability of the data could have been negatively impacted by ego-defensiveness on the part of the employee •The value of the factors differed as a function of the occupational level of the employee •Ignores the part played by individual differences among employees (Gaziel, 1986).
•It is more of an job satisfaction theory than of a motivation theory •Two factors are not actually distinct. Factors overlapped as sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction (K Aswathappa, 2005)
•Clayton Paul Alderfer, American psychologist further developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs by categorizing the hierarchy into his ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness and Growth. Identified three groups of core needs •Existence needs •Relatedness needs •Growth needs •Based on frustration-regression principle ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY (Alderfer, C. P. (1969)
•Existence needs- concerned with providing the basic material existence requirements of humans. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. •Relatedness needs – the desire people have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied. He fit Maslow's interpersonal love and esteem needs into the Relatedness category. •Growth needs- an intrinsic desire for personal development. It includes the self-actualization and self-esteem needs of Maslow’s theory.
•Alderfer also proposed a regression theory to go along with the ERG theory. •He said that when needs in a higher category are not met then individuals redouble the efforts invested in a lower category need. •For example if self-actualization or self-esteem is not met then individuals will invest more effort in the relatedness category in the hopes of achieving the higher need. (Alderfer, Clayton P.,1969)
McClelland's Theory of needs •Created by psychologist David McClelland, is a motivational model that attempts to explain 3 motivational needs •Need for achievement (n-Ach): The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. •Need for power (n-Pow): The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. •Need for affiliation (n-Aff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. nAch nPow nAff
NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (n-Ach) Unconscious concern for excellence in accomplishments through individual efforts. Those who have high need for achievement have a strong need to be successful. A worker who derives great satisfaction from meeting deadlines, coming up with brilliant ideas, and planning his or her next career move may be high in need for achievement.
Characteristics of high n-Ach people •High internal locus of control, self confidence and high energy traits •Take responsibility for solving problems. •They are goal oriented, set moderate, realistic, attainable goals •Perform well in non routine, challenging and competitive situations •Tend to achieve entrepreneurial-type positions
NEED FOR POWER (n-Pow) Unconscious concern for influencing others and seeking positions of authority. Characteristics of high n-Pow people •Wanting to influence or control over others •Enjoying the competition in which they can win (they don’t want to lose) • Being willing to confront others •Seeking positions of authority and status. •Tend to be ambitious and lower need of affiliation
NEED FOR AFFILIATION (n-Aff) Unconscious concern for developing, maintaining and restoring close personal relationships. Characteristics of high n-Aff people •Seeking close relationships with others •Wanting to be liked by others • Enjoying lot of social activities •Seeking to belong, they join groups and associations
PROCESS THEORIES •Deal with the “process” of motivation, on how motivation occurs •Concerned with cognitive antecedents that go into motivation or effort and with way they relate to one another. •Major process theories •Vroom’s expectancy theory •Porter & Lawler model
VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY (Vroom, V. H.,1964) •Roots in the cognitive concepts of pioneering psychologists Kurt Lewin and Edward Tolman. •Victor Vroom proposed his expectancy theory as an alternative to content models. •The model is built around the concepts of valence, instrumentality, and expectancy and is commonly called the VIE theory.
MEANING OF VARIABLES VALENCE: Strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome. Other terms that are used include value, incentive, attitude and expected utility If valence is, Positive: person prefer attaining the outcome Zero: person is indifferent towards the outcome Negative: person prefer not attaining the outcome EXPECTANCY: probability that a particular efforts in obtaining a desired first level outcome INSTRUMENTALITY: Probability that a first level outcome in obtaining a desired second level outcome, Eg: if a person is motivated to attain a superior performance for getting a promotion. Superior performance is seen as instrumental to achieve promotion
IMPLICATIONS •Everyone has a unique combination of valences, instrumentalities, and expectancies. Thus vroom theory indicates only the conceptual determinants of motivation and how they are related, not the what motivates the employees of an organisation. •Vroom model does not directly contribute much to the techniques of motivating personnel in an organisation. (F.Luthens,1995)
PORTER-LAWLER EXPECTANCY MODEL (Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. ,1968) •Lyman W. Porter And Edward E. Lawler used Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory as a foundation to develop their expectancy model. •Similar to Vroom’s theory, Porter and Lawler concluded that an individual’s motivation to complete a task is affected by the reward they expect to receive for completing the task, but introduced additional aspects to the expectancy theory.
•They start with the premise that effort does not equals satisfaction or performance •Effort does not lead to performance it is mediated by •role perception •Abilities and skills •The rewards that follow and how these are perceived will lead to satisfaction. •Porter and Lawler categorized the reward as intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic rewards are the positive feelings that the individual experiences from completing the task e.g. satisfaction, sense of achievement. Extrinsic rewards are rewards emanating from outside the individual such as bonus, commission and pay increases.
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF WORK MOTIVATION •Equity theory •Goal setting theory •Attribution theory •Cognitive evaluation theory •Reinforcement theory
EQUITY THEORY (Adams, 1965) •Developed in 1963 by John Stacey Adams, workplace and behavioral psychologist, who asserted that employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others (Adams, 1965). •It says that employees compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and try to eliminate any inequities •The belief is that people value fair treatment which causes them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the relationships of their co-workers and the organization.
•An individual will consider that he is treated fairly if he perceives the ratio of his inputs to his outcomes to be equivalent to those around him. •The idea is to have the rewards (outcomes) be directly related with the quality and quantity of the employees contributions (inputs). If both employees were perhaps rewarded the same, it would help the workforce realize that the organization is fair, observant, and appreciative.
•If an employee notices that another person is getting more recognition and rewards for their contributions, even when both have done the same amount and quality of work, it would persuade the employee to be dissatisfied. This dissatisfaction would result in the employee feeling underappreciated and perhaps worthless.
Inputs •Defined as each participant’s contributions to the relational exchange and are viewed as entitling him/her to rewards or costs. Examples: Time, Effort, Hard Work, Commitment, Ability etc Outcomes •Defined as the positive and negative consequences that an individual perceives a participant has incurred as a consequence of his/her relationship with another. • When the ratio of inputs to outcomes is close, than the employee should have much satisfaction with their job. • Outputs can be both tangible and intangible. Examples: Job security, Salary, Employee benefit, Recognition etc
REACTIONS TO INEQUITY
GOAL SETTING THEORY •In late 1960s, Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are the major source of motivation. •Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much efforts will need to be expended. •Specific and difficult goals when accepted will lead to higher performance than do generalized and easy goals, and feedback leads to higher performance •If factors such as acceptance of the goals are held constant, the more difficult the job, higher the level of performance.
Why are people motivated by difficult goals? •Difficult goals direct our attention to the task at hand and away from irrelevant distraction. •Difficult goals energize and to work harder to attain them. •When goals are difficult, people persist in trying to attain them •Difficult goals lead to discovering strategies that help to perform the job effectively.
Factors found to influence the goal-performance relationship •Feedback •Goal commitment •Task characteristics •National culture •Feedback People do well when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals, because feedback helps to identify discrepancies between what they have done and what they want to do.
Goal Commitment Theory suppose that employees are committed to a goal. It is likely to occur •When goals are made public •When employees has an internal locus of control •When goals are self set rather than assigned Task characteristics Goals seem to have a substantial effect on performance when tasks are simple rather than complex, well learned rather than novel, and independent rather than interdependent National culture Theory is well adapted to countries such as US, and Canada because its key components align reasonably well with North American cultures.
REFERENCES • Wahba, M. A., & Bridwell, L. G. (1976). Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15(2), 212–240. doi: 10.1016/0030- 5073(76)90038-6 •Steve Denning, What Maslow Missed, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2012/03/29/what-maslow-missed/ •Kenrick, D.T., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S.L., & Schaller, M. (2010). Renovating the pyramid of needs: Contemporary extensions built upon ancient foundations. Perspectives on Psychological Science, http:// www.csom.umn.edu/assets/144040.pdf •A.H. Maslow, A Theory of Human Motivation, Psychological Review 50(4) (1943):370-96 •Alderfer, Clayton P., An Empirical Test of a New Theory of Human Needs; Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, volume 4, issue 2, pp. 142–175, May 1969 •K Aswathappa, Human Resource And Personnel Management, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2005 •Gaziel, H. (1986). Correlates of job satisfaction: A study of the two factor theory in an educational setting. The Journal of Psychology, 120(6), 613-626. •Adams, J.S. 1965. Inequity in social exchange. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 62:335-343.
•Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4, 142–175. •Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to work. New York: John Wiley and Sons; •Herzberg, F. (1965). The motivation to work among Finnish supervisors. Personnel Psychology, 18, 393–402. •Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. (1968). Managerial attitudes and performance. Homewood, IL: Irwin; Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.
Motivation

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Motivation

  • 1.
  • 2.
    •Latin word -MOVERE’– To move Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates a behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive. (F.Luthens,1995)
  • 3.
  • 4.
    Need Either physiological orpsychological imbalance Drives •Set up to alleviate needs. •Action oriented •Providing an energizing thrust toward reaching an incentive •Ex: Hunger/thirst drive Incentive Anything that alleviate & reduce a drive
  • 5.
    MOTIVES •Inferences from observationof behaviour eg: a student works hard at all task that come along, we might infer motive to achieve. •Tools for explanation of behaviour Eg: why are you to college? Want to learn, need a college degree, desire for friends etc •Helps to predicts future behaviour eg: if u know a person have a need for achievement you can predict his behaviour (C.T Morgan,1986)
  • 6.
  • 7.
    PRIMARY (physiological/bio logical/unlearned) GENERAL General/Stimulus SECONDARY Unlearned and physiological based Unlearned and non-physiological based Learnedand non-physiological based •Hunger •Thirst •Sleep •Sex •Avoidance of pain •Maternal concern Curiosity Manipulation Activity Affection Power Achievement Affiliation Security Status
  • 8.
    SIGNIFICANCE OF MOTIVATION Performance= motivation X ability X situational factors More motivated the employees, more the performance •Motivation is important in getting and retaining people. Motivation tools act as the glue that links individuals to organizational goals •Employee motivation is directly linked to business profits, and the more self-motivated your employees are, the more differentiated and successful you will be as a business.
  • 10.
    • Hierarchy ofneeds theory • McGregor's Theory X and Theory • Herzberg 2 factor theory • Alderfer ERG needs • McClelland's Need Theory CONTENT THEORIES • Vroom Valence/expectancy • Porter and Lawler Model PROCESS THEORIES • Equity theory • Goal setting theory • Attribution theory • Cognitive evaluation theory • Reinforcement theory CONTEMPORARY THEORIES
  • 11.
    CONTENT THEORIES •Determine whatit is that motivates people at work. •Identify the needs/drives that people have and how these needs are prioritized. •Referred as ‘static’ because they incorporate only one or few points in time and are either past- present time oriented.
  • 12.
    MASLOW HIERARCHY OFNEEDS THEORY (A.H. Maslow,1943) •Proposed in the 1943 in paper "A Theory of Human Motivation," by Abraham Maslow •There is a hierarchy of five needs— physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. •Satisfaction-progression principle
  • 13.
  • 14.
    PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS Are thephysical requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met, the human body cannot function properly and will ultimately fail. Examples: Hunger, Thirst, Sleep, Sex etc
  • 15.
    SAFETY NEEDS •With theirphysical needs relatively satisfied, the individual’s safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. •These needs have to do with people’s yearning for a predictable orderly world in which perceived unfairness and inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare. •Safety and security needs include: • Personal security • Financial security • Health and well-being • Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts
  • 16.
    SOCIAL NEEDS •After physiologicaland safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs are social and involve feelings of belonging. This involves emotionally based relationships like friendship, intimacy, family etc. •Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams etc. •They need to love and be loved by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. •This need for belonging depending on the strength of the peer pressure
  • 17.
    ESTEEM NEEDS •All humanshave a need to be respected and to have self-esteem and self respect. •Focus on need to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. •There can be two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need for self-respect, the need for strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom.
  • 18.
    SELF-ACTUALIZATION •This level ofneed pertains to what a person’s full potential is and realizing that potential. •Maslow describes this desire as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.
  • 19.
    CRITICISMS •Maslow's theory isa theory of human behavior in general rather than work behavior •Little evidence has been found for the ranking of needs that Maslow described, or even for the existence of a definite hierarchy at all. (Wahba, M. A., & Bridwell, L. G.,1976) •Needs are not independent to one another, they overlaps (Kenrick, D.T., et.al,2010)
  • 20.
    •The position andvalue of sex on the pyramid is in the physiological needs category along with food and breathing; it lists sex solely from an individualistic perspective, it forgets the emotional, familial and evolutionary aspects of the same. (Kenrick, D.T., et.al,2010) •Belongingness is the driving force of human behavior, not a third tier activity. •Needs are interactive, dynamic system anchored in the ability to make social connections.( Steve Denning, 2012)
  • 21.
    McGregor's Theory Xand Theory Y (McGregor, D. ,1960) •Douglas McGregor, an American social psychologist, proposed his famous X-Y theory in his 1960 book 'The Human Side Of Enterprise'. •McGregor's ideas suggest that there are two fundamental approaches to managing people. •Theory X and Theory Y have to do with the perceptions managers hold on their employees, not the way they generally behave. It is attitude not attributes.
  • 22.
    Theory X It assumesemployees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can and that they inherently dislike work. As a result of this, management believes that workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of controls developed. Theory Y In this theory, management assumes employees may be ambitious and self-motivated and exercise self-control. It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties. According to them work is as natural as play.
  • 23.
    •Assumes employees areinherently lazy and will avoid work if they can. Workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of control put in place. • A hierarchical structure is needed, with narrow span of control at each level, for effective management. •Employees will show little ambition without an enticing incentive program and will avoid responsibility whenever they can. •Think most employees are only out for themselves and their sole interest in the job is to earn money. •Tend to blame employees in most situations, without questioning the systems, policy, or lack of training which could be the real cause of failures. •Tend to take a rather pessimistic view of their employees. •Adopt a more authoritarian style based on the threat of punishment. Theory X
  • 24.
    •Assumes that employeesare ambitious, self-motivated, anxious to accept greater responsibility and exercise self-control, self- direction, autonomy and empowerment. •Believes that employees enjoy their work and believe that, given a chance, employees have the desire to be creative at their work place and become forward looking. •There is a chance for greater productivity by giving employees the freedom to perform to the best of their abilities, without being bogged down by rules. •Believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong motivation in itself. A theory Y manager will try to remove the barriers that prevent workers from fully actualizing themselves . Theory Y
  • 25.
    SIGNIFICANCE •Theory remains avalid basic principle from which to develop positive management style and techniques. •Remains central to organizational development, and to improving organizational culture. •A simple reminder of the natural rules for managing people, which under the pressure of day-to-day business are all too easily forgotten. •Theory X might be more suitable in some crisis situations but less appropriate in more routine and formalized situations. In India Theory X may still be useful at the lower levels of organisation.
  • 26.
    HERZBERG’S 2 FACTORTHEORY (Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. 1959) •It was developed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg • Also known as Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory and dual- factor theory •Extended the work of Maslow •Study on about 200 accountants and engineers employed by firms in and around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania using critical incident method.
  • 28.
    •Identified job satisfiersare related with job content •Job dissatisfiers are related with job context •2 Factors identified- •Hygiene Factors- job dissatisfiers •Motivators- job satisfiers
  • 30.
    HYGIENE FACTORS •Preventive andenvironmental in nature •Roughly equivalent to Maslow's lower level needs •It prevents dissatisfaction, but they do not lead to satisfaction •It cannot motivate MOTIVATERS •Factors that motivate people on the job •Roughly equivalent to Maslow's higher needs
  • 31.
    Implications •Many organisations tryto motivate employees with hygiene factors like salary. •Hygiene factors are necessary for employee retention, but it cannot motivate talented employees to stay with organisations for long.
  • 32.
    CRITICISMS •The theory appearsto be bound to the critical incident method •The reliability of the data could have been negatively impacted by ego-defensiveness on the part of the employee •The value of the factors differed as a function of the occupational level of the employee •Ignores the part played by individual differences among employees (Gaziel, 1986).
  • 33.
    •It is moreof an job satisfaction theory than of a motivation theory •Two factors are not actually distinct. Factors overlapped as sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction (K Aswathappa, 2005)
  • 34.
    •Clayton Paul Alderfer,American psychologist further developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs by categorizing the hierarchy into his ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness and Growth. Identified three groups of core needs •Existence needs •Relatedness needs •Growth needs •Based on frustration-regression principle ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY (Alderfer, C. P. (1969)
  • 35.
    •Existence needs- concernedwith providing the basic material existence requirements of humans. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. •Relatedness needs – the desire people have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied. He fit Maslow's interpersonal love and esteem needs into the Relatedness category. •Growth needs- an intrinsic desire for personal development. It includes the self-actualization and self-esteem needs of Maslow’s theory.
  • 37.
    •Alderfer also proposeda regression theory to go along with the ERG theory. •He said that when needs in a higher category are not met then individuals redouble the efforts invested in a lower category need. •For example if self-actualization or self-esteem is not met then individuals will invest more effort in the relatedness category in the hopes of achieving the higher need. (Alderfer, Clayton P.,1969)
  • 38.
    McClelland's Theory ofneeds •Created by psychologist David McClelland, is a motivational model that attempts to explain 3 motivational needs •Need for achievement (n-Ach): The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. •Need for power (n-Pow): The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. •Need for affiliation (n-Aff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. nAch nPow nAff
  • 39.
    NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT(n-Ach) Unconscious concern for excellence in accomplishments through individual efforts. Those who have high need for achievement have a strong need to be successful. A worker who derives great satisfaction from meeting deadlines, coming up with brilliant ideas, and planning his or her next career move may be high in need for achievement.
  • 40.
    Characteristics of highn-Ach people •High internal locus of control, self confidence and high energy traits •Take responsibility for solving problems. •They are goal oriented, set moderate, realistic, attainable goals •Perform well in non routine, challenging and competitive situations •Tend to achieve entrepreneurial-type positions
  • 41.
    NEED FOR POWER(n-Pow) Unconscious concern for influencing others and seeking positions of authority. Characteristics of high n-Pow people •Wanting to influence or control over others •Enjoying the competition in which they can win (they don’t want to lose) • Being willing to confront others •Seeking positions of authority and status. •Tend to be ambitious and lower need of affiliation
  • 42.
    NEED FOR AFFILIATION(n-Aff) Unconscious concern for developing, maintaining and restoring close personal relationships. Characteristics of high n-Aff people •Seeking close relationships with others •Wanting to be liked by others • Enjoying lot of social activities •Seeking to belong, they join groups and associations
  • 43.
    PROCESS THEORIES •Deal withthe “process” of motivation, on how motivation occurs •Concerned with cognitive antecedents that go into motivation or effort and with way they relate to one another. •Major process theories •Vroom’s expectancy theory •Porter & Lawler model
  • 44.
    VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY (Vroom,V. H.,1964) •Roots in the cognitive concepts of pioneering psychologists Kurt Lewin and Edward Tolman. •Victor Vroom proposed his expectancy theory as an alternative to content models. •The model is built around the concepts of valence, instrumentality, and expectancy and is commonly called the VIE theory.
  • 46.
    MEANING OF VARIABLES VALENCE:Strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome. Other terms that are used include value, incentive, attitude and expected utility If valence is, Positive: person prefer attaining the outcome Zero: person is indifferent towards the outcome Negative: person prefer not attaining the outcome EXPECTANCY: probability that a particular efforts in obtaining a desired first level outcome INSTRUMENTALITY: Probability that a first level outcome in obtaining a desired second level outcome, Eg: if a person is motivated to attain a superior performance for getting a promotion. Superior performance is seen as instrumental to achieve promotion
  • 47.
    IMPLICATIONS •Everyone has aunique combination of valences, instrumentalities, and expectancies. Thus vroom theory indicates only the conceptual determinants of motivation and how they are related, not the what motivates the employees of an organisation. •Vroom model does not directly contribute much to the techniques of motivating personnel in an organisation. (F.Luthens,1995)
  • 48.
    PORTER-LAWLER EXPECTANCY MODEL (Porter, L.W., & Lawler, E. E. ,1968) •Lyman W. Porter And Edward E. Lawler used Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory as a foundation to develop their expectancy model. •Similar to Vroom’s theory, Porter and Lawler concluded that an individual’s motivation to complete a task is affected by the reward they expect to receive for completing the task, but introduced additional aspects to the expectancy theory.
  • 50.
    •They start withthe premise that effort does not equals satisfaction or performance •Effort does not lead to performance it is mediated by •role perception •Abilities and skills •The rewards that follow and how these are perceived will lead to satisfaction. •Porter and Lawler categorized the reward as intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic rewards are the positive feelings that the individual experiences from completing the task e.g. satisfaction, sense of achievement. Extrinsic rewards are rewards emanating from outside the individual such as bonus, commission and pay increases.
  • 51.
    CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF WORKMOTIVATION •Equity theory •Goal setting theory •Attribution theory •Cognitive evaluation theory •Reinforcement theory
  • 52.
    EQUITY THEORY (Adams, 1965) •Developedin 1963 by John Stacey Adams, workplace and behavioral psychologist, who asserted that employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others (Adams, 1965). •It says that employees compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and try to eliminate any inequities •The belief is that people value fair treatment which causes them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the relationships of their co-workers and the organization.
  • 53.
    •An individual willconsider that he is treated fairly if he perceives the ratio of his inputs to his outcomes to be equivalent to those around him. •The idea is to have the rewards (outcomes) be directly related with the quality and quantity of the employees contributions (inputs). If both employees were perhaps rewarded the same, it would help the workforce realize that the organization is fair, observant, and appreciative.
  • 54.
    •If an employeenotices that another person is getting more recognition and rewards for their contributions, even when both have done the same amount and quality of work, it would persuade the employee to be dissatisfied. This dissatisfaction would result in the employee feeling underappreciated and perhaps worthless.
  • 55.
    Inputs •Defined as eachparticipant’s contributions to the relational exchange and are viewed as entitling him/her to rewards or costs. Examples: Time, Effort, Hard Work, Commitment, Ability etc Outcomes •Defined as the positive and negative consequences that an individual perceives a participant has incurred as a consequence of his/her relationship with another. • When the ratio of inputs to outcomes is close, than the employee should have much satisfaction with their job. • Outputs can be both tangible and intangible. Examples: Job security, Salary, Employee benefit, Recognition etc
  • 57.
  • 58.
    GOAL SETTING THEORY •Inlate 1960s, Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are the major source of motivation. •Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much efforts will need to be expended. •Specific and difficult goals when accepted will lead to higher performance than do generalized and easy goals, and feedback leads to higher performance •If factors such as acceptance of the goals are held constant, the more difficult the job, higher the level of performance.
  • 59.
    Why are peoplemotivated by difficult goals? •Difficult goals direct our attention to the task at hand and away from irrelevant distraction. •Difficult goals energize and to work harder to attain them. •When goals are difficult, people persist in trying to attain them •Difficult goals lead to discovering strategies that help to perform the job effectively.
  • 60.
    Factors found toinfluence the goal-performance relationship •Feedback •Goal commitment •Task characteristics •National culture •Feedback People do well when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals, because feedback helps to identify discrepancies between what they have done and what they want to do.
  • 61.
    Goal Commitment Theory supposethat employees are committed to a goal. It is likely to occur •When goals are made public •When employees has an internal locus of control •When goals are self set rather than assigned Task characteristics Goals seem to have a substantial effect on performance when tasks are simple rather than complex, well learned rather than novel, and independent rather than interdependent National culture Theory is well adapted to countries such as US, and Canada because its key components align reasonably well with North American cultures.
  • 62.
    REFERENCES • Wahba, M.A., & Bridwell, L. G. (1976). Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15(2), 212–240. doi: 10.1016/0030- 5073(76)90038-6 •Steve Denning, What Maslow Missed, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2012/03/29/what-maslow-missed/ •Kenrick, D.T., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S.L., & Schaller, M. (2010). Renovating the pyramid of needs: Contemporary extensions built upon ancient foundations. Perspectives on Psychological Science, http:// www.csom.umn.edu/assets/144040.pdf •A.H. Maslow, A Theory of Human Motivation, Psychological Review 50(4) (1943):370-96 •Alderfer, Clayton P., An Empirical Test of a New Theory of Human Needs; Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, volume 4, issue 2, pp. 142–175, May 1969 •K Aswathappa, Human Resource And Personnel Management, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2005 •Gaziel, H. (1986). Correlates of job satisfaction: A study of the two factor theory in an educational setting. The Journal of Psychology, 120(6), 613-626. •Adams, J.S. 1965. Inequity in social exchange. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 62:335-343.
  • 63.
    •Alderfer, C. P.(1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4, 142–175. •Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to work. New York: John Wiley and Sons; •Herzberg, F. (1965). The motivation to work among Finnish supervisors. Personnel Psychology, 18, 393–402. •Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. (1968). Managerial attitudes and performance. Homewood, IL: Irwin; Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.