Motivation

MOTIVATION
―EXISTENCE ALONE IS NOT SUCCESS‖.

IT‘S A LOT MORE !

SUCCESS RESULTS FROM INSPIRATION,
ASPIRATION, DESPERATION AND
PERSPIRATION‖.

MEANING AND DEFINITIONS
► ―Motivationis like food for the brain. It
needs continual and regular top up‖.

► ―Motivation is a process which begins with a
physiological or psychological need or
deficiency which triggers behaviour or a
drive that is aimed at a goal or an incentive.

Needs Drives Incentives

MEANING AND DEFINITIONS…
► Motivation is one of the key ingredients in
employee performance and productivity.
Individuals may not get the job done
without sufficient motivation though they
are provided with right objectives,
supportive work environment and the right
skills.

► Motivation is the latest challenge that is
faced by the employers and these challenges
have come due to restructuring of
organisation, re-engineering, globalisation
and information technology.

► Motivationis derived from the Latin word
‗movere‘ which means to ―move‖. And it is
the ‗motive‘ an inner state of mind that
energises, activates or moves and directs
behaviour towards goals.

► Motivationrefers to the forces within a
person that affects his or her direction,
intensity and persistence of voluntary
behaviour.

► According toDalton E. McFarland,
► ―Motivation refers to the way in which
urges, drives, desires, aspirations, strivings
or needs influence the choice of
alternatives in the behaviour of human
beings‖.

► According to Stephen P. Robbins,
► ―Motivation represents an unsatisfied
need, which creates a state of tension or
disequilibrium causing the individual to
move in a goal directed pattern towards
restoring a state of equilibrium by
satisfying the need‖.


► ―Motivation
is getting people to do what you
want them to do because they want to do it‖
- Dwight D. Eisenhower

Motivation is the willingness to exert
high level of efforts towards
organizational goals, conditioned by the
efforts ability to satisfy some individual
needs.

MOTIVATION PROCESS

NEED DRIVES GOALS SATISFACTION
(Deficiency) (Direction) (Fulfilling) (Reduction in drives)

► NEED :Need is deficiency. Needs are
created whenever there is a
physiological or psychological imbalance.

► DRIVE :Drive is deficiency with
direction. They enhance the goal
accomplishment through actions.

► GOALS : Goals are generally interpreted as
incentives and anything that will alleviate a
need to reduce a drive is called an incentive.

► SATISFACTION: The goal achievement
requires a clear direction and the direction
enhances the level and quality of output.
The individual derives the ultimate
satisfaction only if the goals are achieved.

NATURE OR CHARACTERISTICS OF
MOTIVATION
► i) Energetic force
► ii) An internal feeling
► iii) Intervening variable
► iv) Work related behaviour
► v) Positive or negative
► vi) Equilibrium
► vii) Complex process

Motivation is not
permanent.. Neither
is bathing – Over
The Top – Zig Ziglar

Motivation is the fuel
necessary to keep the
human engine
running

► Energetic force : Motivation is a
momentum for doing something which may
originate ‗within‘ or ‗beyond‘ an individual.
It is a urge to accomplish a task.

► An internal feeling: Motivation is an inner
state that energises, activates, or moves and
that directs or channels behaviour towards
goals.

► Intervening variable : Motivation is an
internal psychological process which is not
directly observable and which account for
behaviour from behaviour. It cannot be seen
but can only be inferred from behaviour.

► Work related behaviour : Motivation
directs behaviour towards some goal,
work or action. It influences human
behaviour to perform. It creates work
environment on the part of individuals.

► Positive or negative : Positive motivation
is based on rewards, praise, pride,
participation and growth. Negative
motivation, on the other hand, is based on
force of fear and punishment.

► Equilibrium : According to Chester
Bernard, motivation is in the form
―inducement-contribution theory‖. It
motivates workers and organisations to
find what payouts (inducements) to
workers in exchange for what degree of
co-operation (contributions) from
workers will be satisfactory to both the
parties. Thus motivation cannot happen
without this equilibrium.

► Complex process : This is evident from the
following reasons.
► A) Motivation is hypothetical construct, as it
is not seen.
► B) Motivation is an individual phenomenon.
► C) Humans are not consciously aware of
their desires.
► D) People have different ways to satisfy
their needs.
► E) Motivation is rarely traceable to a single
motive etc.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

► 1) MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY
THEORY
► 2) ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
► 3) McGREGOR’S X AND Y
THEORY
► 4) HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR
THEORY
► 5) McCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT
– MOTIVATION THEORY

► 6) VICTOR VROOM’S EXPECTANCY
THEORY
► 7) PORTER – LAWLER’S THEORY
► 8) EQUITY THEORY
► 9) GOAL SETTING THEORY
► 10) ATTRIBUTION THEORY
► 11) OUCHIS Z THEORY

MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY
► This theory was proposed by Abraham
Maslow. Maslow postulates that people in
work environment are motivated to perform
by a desire to satisfy a set of internal needs.
His framework is based on the following
fundamental assumptions :
► i) people‘s needs influence their behaviour,
► ii) people‘s needs exerts a powerful effect
on the individual‘s thinking and
behaviour,
► iii) once one need is satisfied, another need
emerges and demands satisfaction,
► iv) the lowest unsatisfied need has the
greatest motivational potential.

MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY…

SELF
ACTUALISATION

SELF - ESTEEM
SOCIAL/ BELONGING NEEDS
SAFETY & SECURITY NEEDS
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

► PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS consists of the
basic needs of the human body such as food,
clothing, shelter and sex. These needs
dominate all other needs.

► SAFETY & SECURITY NEEDS includes
security and protection from physical and
emotional harm, ill health, economic
disaster and the unexpected.

► SOCIAL/ BELONGING NEEDS includes need
for companionship, affection,
belongingness, acceptance and love. Non
satisfaction of these needs may affect the
mental health of the individual.

► SELF ESTEEM NEEDS includes internal
esteem (awareness of one‘s importance to
others) factors such as self- respect,
autonomy and achievement and external
factors such as status, recognition and
attention. The satisfaction of these needs
leads to self confidence and prestige.

► SELF ACTUALISATION is the desire to
become more and more what one is, to
become one is capable of becoming. It
includes growth, achieving one‘s potential
and self fulfillment. The satisfaction of self
actualization needs is possible only after the
satisfaction of all other needs.

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
► CLAYTON ALDERFER proposed this ERG
theory by grouping human needs into three
categories viz.
► E – Existence, R – Relatedness, G – Growth.

► EXISTENCE NEEDS include individual‘s
physiological and safety needs i.e. the need
for food, clothing, shelter, fringe benefits
and better working conditions.

► RELATEDNESS NEEDS include how
individuals develop the need to interact with
other individuals and to acquire public
recognition and have an interpersonal
security.

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY….
► GROWTH NEEDS explain the individual‘s self-
esteem through personal achievement and the
concept of self –actualisation.
► ERG theory explains that an individual‘s behaviour
could be motivated simultaneously by more than
one need. Alderfer also states that one could satisfy
the growth needs even though the related needs
are not met.
► The ERG theory can help managers to gain an
insight into employees‘ behaviour because of the
assumptions it holds that individual‘s are motivated
to adopt a behaviour to satisfy one of the three sets
of needs.

McGREGOR‘S X AND Y THEORY

► Douglas McGregor assumed that motivating
people involves certain assumptions about
human nature. It involves certain
assumptions, generalisations and hypothesis
relating human behaviour and human
nature. These set of assumptions serve the
purpose of predicting human behaviour.
These are merely intuitive deductions and
not based on any research findings.

► Theory X represents old stereotyped and
authoritarian management style of
motivation. It is based on the following
assumptions :
► i) by nature man is lazy and dislikes work,
► ii) lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility
and prefers to be directed,
► iii) self centred and indifferent to
organisational goals,
► iv) needs to be closely controlled,
► v) motivation occurs at psychological and
safety needs,

► vi) management must
organise for factors of
production,
► vii) average man is
generally passive and
resistant to organisational
needs.

► This shows the negative
assumptions of human
behaviour. Hence the carrot
and stick approach of
motivation needs to be
followed.

► McGregor suggested a
counter approach to
motivation which is called
Theory Y. He recognised
some factors that theory X
fails to take into account.
This theory is based on the
following assumptions :

► i) that the average person is
active and does not
inherently dislike work,
► ii) seeks responsibility and
learns under proper
condition to accept the
responsibility,
► iii) self directed, self controlled
and creative,
► iv) motivation occurs at higher
level needs, though
unsatisfied lower needs
are important,

► v) there is capacity to exercise high
degree of imagination. ingenuity and
creativity is solving problems though
widely distributed.
► Theory Y suggests the modern approach of
motivation. It emphasises on the
democratic and participative style of
leadership. The most important contribution
of this theory is the commitment of workers
towards organisational goals, cooperation
and co—ordination in work. It leads to
decentralisation of authority, job
enrichment, participative leadership and
two way communication system to create a
better environment.

HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY
► FREDERICK HERZBERG, extended the work
of Maslow and developed this theory. This is
also called as Dual Structure Theory.
According to this theory, there two factors
called MOTIVATORS and HYGIENE that lead
to employee‘s satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

► Motivators are identified as growth,
recognition, responsibility, advancement
and achievement.
► Hygiene is referred to job security, company
policies, working conditions, supervisor
relations and co-worker relations.

HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY…

► In 1950, Herzberg conducted a
motivational study on about 200
accountants and engineers using a critical
incident method for data collection which
resulted in following conclusions:

► i) Different sets of needs play different
roles in the overall process of
motivation and satisfaction in
organisations.


► ii) The factors leading to job satisfaction are
separate and distinct from those that
lead to job dissatisfaction.

► iii) Job satisfaction is not a unidimensional
concept. Thus, to eliminate factors that
create job dissatisfaction can bring about
peace, but cannot necessarily motivate.

► The Herzberg‘s research revealed two
distinct types of motivational factors as
under :

► 1)MOTIVATORS OR SATISFIERS – There is
set of intrinsic (internal) job conditions
which can result in good job performance
and can build a strong level of motivation. If
these conditions are not present, they do
not result dissatisfaction. They are
associated with job experiences and job
content. They are job –centred and create a
challenge and opportunity for achievement
and growth. They are roughly equivalent to
Maslow‘s higher level needs.

► 2) HYGIENE FACTORS OR
DISSATISFIERS –
► There is a set of extrinsic
(external) job conditions
which result in
dissatisfaction among
employees when they are
not present.
► But if these conditions
are present, this does not
necessarily motivate
employees.

► Hygiene factors are associated with the
surrounding or peripheral aspects of the job
– the job context.
► They are preventive and environmental in
nature and are needed to maintain at least a
level of ―no dissatisfaction‖.
► Although they seem to be important in
preventing dissatisfaction, by themselves
they do not motivate or lead to satisfaction.

► HYGIENE FACTORS ► MOTIVATORS
(DISSATISFIERS) (SATISFIERS)

► Job context ► Job content
► Company policy and ► Sense of Achievement
administration. ► Recognition
► Supervision
► Work itself
► Salary
► Increase in
► Interpersonal relations Responsibility
► Working conditions ► Advancement, Growth
► Status, security & Development

McCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT –
MOTIVATION THEORY
► This theory was proposed by DAVID
McCLELLAND.
► He refers that apart from the primary
needs, individual‘s have secondary needs
that are learned. The secondary needs are
learned and reinforced through parental
styles, childhood learning and social
norms. He argues that individual‘s could
be motivated through these learned needs.
The learned needs are :

► Need for achievement
► Need for affiliation and
► Need for power.

MOTIVATION THEORY…
► Need for achievement:
► Individuals with higher need for
achievement will take up challenging
goals. These individuals do not prefer to
work in teams. They have a higher
responsibility in order to reach their goals.
These individuals are generally satisfied
only when they are given a challenging
job, with due recognition and feedback
from the managers.

► Need for affiliation :
► This is similar to Maslow‘s safety and
belongingness needs. An individual high
on the need of affiliation wish to seek
recognition from others and likes more of
dealing with interpersonal relationship. In
order to seek for positive relationship
these individuals generally avoid conflicts.
They participate in general meetings and
social gatherings. This need could also be
related to Alderfer‘s relatedness need.

► Need for power :
► The ability to induce or influence
other‘s behaviour is called power.
McClelland found that persons with a
high power need display a great
concern for exercising influence and
control. They are also interested in
providing status rewards to their
followers.

VICTOR VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY
► Vroom‘s theory covers the entire work
environment while attempting to answer
the question on what is the strength of the
needs in motivating people at work.

► This expectancy theory goes by the basic
premise that employees are rational people,
they think about what they have to do to be
rewarded and how much the rewards mean
to them before they perform their jobs.

VICTOR VROOM’S EXPECTANCY
THEORY….

► This theory is based on four assumptions
viz..
► a) It is a combination of both individual
(expectations about their jobs based on
their needs, motivations, etc.) and the
environment (the organisation) which will
influence how people behave in
organisations. And these could also change
over period of time.

THEORY….
► b)Individuals consciously make their own
decisions (coming to work, staying with
the same firm etc) even though there may
be many constraints placed on their
behaviour (working norms, rules etc).

► c)People expect different rewards from
their work depending on their different
needs and goals.

► d)Individuals take decisions based on
their perceptions about what will be the
desired outcome of a specific behaviour.

THEORY….
► Vroom has built this theory on three
concepts – Valence, Instrumentality and
Expectancy.

► So this approach is also called as VIE
theory.

► Vroom has referred to the result of
behaviours associated with doing the job
itself as First Level Outcomes (ex. Level of
performance, quality of work, amount of
absenteeism).
►

► The Second Level Outcomes are said to be
the rewards (either positive or negative) the
first level outcomes are likely to produce
(ex. An increase in pay, promotion, job
security, acceptance by colleagues).

► VALENCE :
► The strength of an individual‘s preference
for a particular outcome (second level) is
called Valence. Outcomes having a positive
valence could take the form of gaining
respect from friends and colleagues,
performing meaningful work, feeling of job
security, earning enough to maintain a
family.

► Outcomes having negative valence are
instances one could want to avoid such as
being given a golden hand shake, being
passed over for promotion or discharged on
grounds of improper behaviour at work
place (sexual harassment etc). Outcome is
positive when it is preferred by the
individual and negative when it is not
preferred and the individual tries to avoid it.

► INSTRUMENTALITY :
► This refers to the relationship between first
level outcome and second level outcomes
and the values ranging from -1 to +1.
► -1 implies that the attainment of a second
level outcome is inversely related to the
achievement of a first level outcome. For
instance, Mr. A to be accepted as member of
a work group has to have level of
performance, in which case A will ensure
that he will not violate the group‘s norm.

► +1 indicates that the first level outcome is
positively related to the second level
outcome. When a student receives a A+
grade in the final exam, the chance of him
achieving the second level outcome
(clearing the exams with distinction)
approaches ―+1‖.

► EXPECTANCY :

► Thisrefers to the belief that a particular
level of effort will be followed by a
particular level of performance. The
expectancy may vary from the belief that
there is absolutely no relationship
between effort and performance to the
surety that a certain level of effort will
result in a corresponding level of
performance.

► The expectancy has a value ranging from
―0‖ (no chances that a first level outcome
will occur after the behaviour) to ―+1‖ (
the certainty or surety that a particular
first level outcome will be the result of a
particular behaviour).

PORTER – LAWLER’S THEORY

► Porter& Lawler made an effort to refine and
extend Vroom‘s model to try to understand
the relationships between satisfaction and
performance.

► They opined that motivation is not equal to
satisfaction or performance. According to
them, motivation, satisfaction and
performance are separate variables and
relate in different ways as compared to
what was assumed traditionally.

PORTER – LAWLER’S THEORY….
► According to this approach, effort do not
directly lead to performance and is mediated
or interrupted by abilities, traits and role
perceptions.

► Unlike the traditional theories, this theory
suggests that performance leads to
satisfaction. This approach has no doubt,
made significant contributions which has led
to the better understanding of work
motivation and the relationship between
performance and satisfaction.

► However theory is very complex and has
proved to be a difficult one in practice.

EQUITY THEORY
► This theory was introduced by J. Stacy
Adams. It works on two assumptions :
► a) People evaluate their interpersonal
relationships just as exchange process in
which they make contributions and expect
certain results.
► b) Individuals tend to compare their
situations to those of others to determine
the equity of an exchange.
► Stacy Adams opines that people compare
themselves with others based on two
variables i.e. outcomes and inputs.

EQUITY THEORY…
► Inputs represent what an individual
contributes to an exchange and Outputs
are what an individual receives from the
exchange. Both inputs and outputs here
are based on the person‘s perception.

► Equity theory includes that individuals
compare their outcomes and inputs with
those of others and judge their equality
of these relationships in the form of a
ratio. Later they compare the ratios of
their own outcomes / input to the ratios
of others outcomes/ inputs.

EQUITY THEORY…

► But these comparisons occur only when
individuals are working in the same area or
domain.

► Ex.Jack & Jill – Rs 500/- & Rs 350/- per day
for the same job having equal trait, where
one feels happy and other disappointed.

GOAL SETTING THEORY
► “Goals can be defined as future outcomes /
results that individuals and groups desire
and strive to achieve. Goal setting is the
process through which efficiency and
effectiveness can be increased by specifying
the desired outcomes towards which
individuals, teams, departments and
organisations should work‖.
► Goal setting process is one of the most
important motivational tools having an
impact on the performance of employees in
organisation.

GOAL SETTING THEORY….

► Goals setting is the process of developing,
negotiating and establishing goals which
will be challenging enough to structure the
individual‘s time and effort.

► The key attributes of goals are:

► GOAL DIFFICULTY: A good goal; should be
challenging at the same time not too easy,
nor should it be too difficult.

► GOAL CLARITY: The goal should be clear and
specific enough to direct the efforts of the
individual in the desired direction.
►
► SELF EFFICACY: The goal should be set such
that the individual is able to perform the
task at the desired level.

ATTRIBUTION THEORY
► Attributions
play an important role in the
cognitive processes of an individual.
Attributions which people make have
emerged as an important indicator for work
motivation.

► The Attributions theory works on the basis
of the relationship between personal
perception and interpersonal behaviour than
as a theory of individual motivation.

ATTRIBUTION THEORY…
► All the attributions theories share the
following same assumptions:

Individuals tend to seek and make sense
of the world.

We tend to attribute people‘s actions to
internal or external causes.

And this is done in logical ways.

WILLIAM OUCHI’S THEORY Z
► William
ouchi‘s theory Z captures the best in
management methods from the US and
Japanese approaches. Ouchi has made a
comparative analysis in theory Z.

► Japanese management can be characterised
by : life-time employment, emphasis on
group, concern for employees, collective
decision making and role of top
management as a facilitator. While
American practices include short –term
employment, rapid advancement, personal
decision making, individual responsibility,
segmented concern for employees and
specialisation in career.

► This is a ―Hybrid‖ type of system which
incorporates the strengths of Japanese
management practices and American
management practices.
► In fact, Z does not stand for anything. It is
merely the last letter of the alphabet.
Actually, theory Z is not a theory. It is a
label interchangeable with type Z.

► William Ouchi described the following
feature under the caption of ‗Z‘.
► i) strong bond between organisation and
employees,
► ii) employees‘ participation,

► iii)mutual trust,
► iv) no formal organisation structure,
► v) human resource development,
► vi) informal control system.

► Thus theory Z provides a complete
transformation of motivational aspect of
employees. It is a comprehensive
philosophy of management. It rather
involves a complex amalgamation of
management principles and techniques for
obtaining the maximum co-operation of the
employees.

THE MBO APPROACH TO MOTIVATION
► Management By Objectives is a philosophy and system
advocated by Peter Drucker in 1950 that emphasises on a
particular set of goals that are tangible, verifiable and
measurable.
► MBO is the method by which managers and employees
jointly set goals for work performance and personal
development, periodically evaluate the employee’s
progress towards achieving these goals and integrating of
individual, team, departmental and organisational goals.

► The MBO model comprises of four basic components viz:
 Goal Setting,
 Subordinate participation,
 Implementation and
 Performance Appraisal/Feedback.

Management By Objectives

MBO 1. 2.
Process Goal Setting Subordinate
Starts Participation

4. 3.
Performance Implementation
Appraisal/Feedback

MBO – in practice
► A lot of emphasis is placed on rewarding people for
accomplishing goals and punished for not doing so.

► MBO is supposed to reduce the amount of paper work and
red tapism but reverse usually occurs.

► In reality the process is controlled from the top, offering
little scope for employee participation.

► Very often the MBO is reduced to a lose-win situation
between the managers and the employees.

► Too much of importance is given to individual goals and
performance. This may result in the individual concentrating
on attainment of individual goal defeating the very purpose
of collaborative team work and group goals.

EMPLOYEE ECOGNITION PROGRAMMES
► Congratulate an employee – note/email,
complimenting at meetings
► Install an award/certificate – recognise an employee’s
productivity/work performance
► Group Good Performance Recognition – T-shirts, Tea
Mugs, Tie-pins,
► Examples:
► ICICI Bank uses the ‗service ambassador‘ concept to
foster good customer service norms through well groomed
select employees
► Co’s like Infosys, Voltas make use ‗Suggestion
Schemes‘ to reward the valuable suggestions for cost
cutting/improving quality

EMPLOYEE ECOGNITION PROGRAMMES
FINANCIAL MOTIVATION NON-FINANCIAL MOTIVATION

Variable Pay – piece rate, bonus, Complimenting employees
incentives, profit sharing bonuses
Skill Based Pay – on attaining degrees Awarding certificates
and proficiencies
Flexible Benefits – an employee can Recognition-as service ambassadors
pick from a basket of benefit options
Cash Awards Employee Involvement /Participation
Programmes
ESOP Quality circles

Job Enrichment /Job Excitement

Delegation & Empowerment

Motivation

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