The document discusses morphological processes used to derive new words by altering stems, which can change their meaning or grammatical functions. It outlines various methods such as compounding, affixation, reduplication, internal modification, conversion, back derivation, clipping, and acronimisation, providing examples for each process. Additionally, it distinguishes between concatenative and non-concatenative processes, highlighting how different types of affixes and modifications can change word forms.

2. - alter stems to derive new words.
They may change the word’s meaning
(derivational) or its grammatical
functions (inflectional).

3. There are several different types of
processes, not all of which are present in all
languages.
Some of these are concatenative, meaning
that they involve the linear combination of
morphemes (affixation, for example),
while others are non-concatenative,
involving the internal alternation of
morphemes.

4. Morphological Processes
Concatenative Non-concatenative
Compounding
Affixation
Incorporation
Reduplication
(Repetition)
Internal modification
Conversion
Back Derivation

6. Compounding can be used to form new
words through combining two stems as
in the words blackbird or housekeeper.
Compounds can be composed of many
parts of speech. Some examples
include:
•Compounding

7. noun-noun such as horseshoe
noun-verb such as trouble-shoot
adjective –verb or high-jump
adjective-adjective such as bittersweet
adjective-noun such as jumping bean
verb-noun such as spelling bee
verb- preposition such as push-up
preposition-verb such as out-cast
•Compounding

8. •Incorporation
similar to compounding, typically
as noun-incorporation where a
nominal stem is fused with a
verbal stem to yield a larger,
derived verbal stem,
e.g. to globe-trot

9. •Affixation
involves the attachment of morphemes to
a stem. There are several types of affixes,
classified in terms of where they attach to
a stem: beginning, end, middle, or
around.
Affixation: suffix, prefix, interfix, circumfix,
and transfix.

10. 1 2
- affix- base (root or stem)

12. Reduplication
morphological process that involves
copying part of the base and
attaching it as an affix; description
involves determining how much is
copied and where it appears in
relation to the base.

13. Examples:
• bang-bang - sound of a gun when
firing
• cha-cha - ballroom dance (Latin)
•bye-bye – goodbye
•quak-quak – sound of an animal duck

14. •Internal Modification,
Apophony
Apophonic alternations are cases
of non-concatenative morphology:
a grammatical opposition is
expressed via a vowel alternation.

16. Vowel Modification
strong’ verbs in English:
[I] – [æ] begin – began, ring-rang, sing – sang.
[i:] – [ou] speak –spoke, steal – stole, weave –
wove.
[ai] - [au] bind – bound, find – found, wind –
wound.

17. Noun/Verb in English:
[θ] – [ð] mouth – mouth, sheath – sheathe, wreath –
wreathe
[f] – [v] belief – believe, grief – grieve, proof – prove
[s] – [z] advice – advise, device – devise, house –
house
[s] – [d] defence – defend, offence – offend
[t] – [d] bent – bend, ascent – ascend, descent –
descend
Consonant
modification

18. Mixed modification
- more than one segment.
e.g. English present/past:
catch – caught, seek – sought, teach – taught,
Verb / Noun:
live –life, bath–bathe, breath–breathe, cloth-
clothe

19. Conversion
This process is also known as zero-
derivation. This process changes the
part of speech and meaning of an
existing root without producing any
change in pronunciation or spelling
and without adding any affix.

20. Back Derivation
(back-formation) found in derivation and not
inflection. The formation of a
new lexeme by the deletion of a suffix, or
supposed suffix, form an apparently complex form
by analogy with other instances where the suffixed
and non-suffixed forms are both lexemes.

21. Examples:
transcription – to transcript,
contraception – to contracept

22. A polysyllabic lexeme is shortened in a
more or less arbitrary fashion.
Clipping

23. E.g.
Back clipping: advertisement > ad, fanatic > fan,
dormitory > dorm, gymnasium > gym,
rhinoceros > rhino, temperature > temp, Joseph >
Jo, Jesus > Jee
fore-clipping: hamburger > burger, violoncello >
cello, telephone > phone, caravan > van
Mixed clipping: influenza > flu, refrigerator > fridge

24. Acroniminsation
An artificial word-manufacturing, usually
used with names of new scientific
discoveries, trade names, organization
names, offices:

25. AIDS = Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
LASER = light amplification by stimulated emission
of radiation
UNESCO = United Nations Educational, Scientific,
and Cultural Organization
RADAR = Radio Detecting And Ranging,
SCUBA = Self-Contained Underwater Breathing
Apparatus