The document provides information on various protozoan and helminth parasites. It discusses the morphology, life cycles, transmission, symptoms and diseases caused, diagnosis and treatment of intestinal protozoa like Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum; blood and tissue protozoa like Plasmodium species, Toxoplasma gondii and Leishmania species; and helminth parasites including nematodes, cestodes and trematodes. Key information on parasite identification from stool, blood or tissue samples and recommended treatment regimens are also provided.
Legionella pneumophila is a fastidious, aerobic bacterium that stains poorly and requires special staining techniques. It can cause pneumonia by growing in warm, moist environments like air conditioning systems and shower heads. It is susceptible to erythromycin and other drugs. Several other Bartonella species can cause diseases in humans transmitted via insect bites like trench fever. Bacterial vaginosis is associated with Gardnerella vaginalis, which is detected in wet smears as it covers vaginal cells. It has a fishy odor and high pH. Metronidazole is used to treat it.
The document summarizes several intestinal protozoan parasites that can infect humans. It describes the causal agents, life cycles, transmission routes, clinical features, laboratory diagnosis, and treatment for parasites including Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora cayetanensis, and Balantidium coli. Key details provided on the parasites include their sites of infection in the host, symptoms caused, and diagnostic methods such as acid-fast staining of stool samples.
The document summarizes several intestinal protozoan parasites that can infect humans. It describes the causal agents, life cycles, transmission routes, clinical features, laboratory diagnosis, and treatment for parasites including Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora cayetanensis, and Balantidium coli. Key details provided on each parasite include their geographic distribution, sites of infection within the host, symptoms caused, and diagnostic microscopic stages observed in stool samples.
This document provides a classification and overview of intestinal protozoa including Entamoeba, Giardia, Dientamoeba, Trichomonas, and Balantidium. It describes the morphology, life cycles, pathogenicity and clinical manifestations of Entamoeba histolytica, the causative agent of amebiasis. Laboratory diagnosis and treatment options for intestinal amebiasis and extraintestinal complications like hepatic amebiasis are also summarized. The document briefly mentions other non-pathogenic intestinal amoebae including Entamoeba coli, Entamoeba dispar, Entamoeba hartmanni, Entamoeba gingivalis, Endolimax n
1. Entamoeba histolytica is one of the most important pathogenic protozoa that infects humans. It causes amebiasis through the transmission of infective cysts from feces to mouth via contaminated food or water.
2. The life cycle involves cyst ingestion, excystation in the small intestine, colonization of the large intestine by trophozoites, and formation of cysts that are passed in feces. Trophozoites can invade the intestinal lining and spread to other organs.
3. Symptoms range from mild abdominal discomfort to severe dysentery. Most infections are asymptomatic but some can cause life-threatening extra-intestinal complications like liver abscesses if left untreated
This document summarizes various pathogens including fungi, protozoa, and helminths that cause disease in humans. It outlines the causative organism, symptoms and disease manifestations, methods of diagnosis, and common treatments for each group. Key pathogens covered include Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Pneumocystis jiroveci, Plasmodium falciparum, Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, Toxoplasma gondii, Schistosoma mansoni, Taenia solium, and Echinococcus granulosus. Diagnostic approaches involve microscopy, culture, antigen detection, serology, and imaging tests. Common anti
This document summarizes information about the amoeba Entamoeba histolytica, including its life cycle, pathogenesis, and methods of diagnosis. It describes two stages - the trophozoite stage, which is invasive and feeds on red blood cells, and the cyst stage, which is the infective form passed in feces. Transmission occurs when mature cysts from contaminated food/water are ingested. In the small intestine, trophozoites are released from cysts and can invade the intestinal mucosa, causing amebic dysentery, or spread to other organs like the liver via the bloodstream. Diagnosis involves microscopy of stool samples to look for trophozoites and cysts or serological tests
This document summarizes information about various intestinal flagellates and ciliates that can infect humans. It discusses the taxonomy, morphology, life cycles, transmission routes, pathogenesis and treatment of several important species, including Giardia lamblia, Chilomastix mesnili, Trichomonas species, Balantidium coli, and Ichthyopthirius multifiliis. Key points covered include the stages, structures and habitats of these parasites as well as how they are transmitted and can cause disease in humans or other hosts.
Legionella pneumophila is a fastidious, aerobic bacterium that stains poorly and requires special staining techniques. It can cause pneumonia by growing in warm, moist environments like air conditioning systems and shower heads. It is susceptible to erythromycin and other drugs. Several other Bartonella species can cause diseases in humans transmitted via insect bites like trench fever. Bacterial vaginosis is associated with Gardnerella vaginalis, which is detected in wet smears as it covers vaginal cells. It has a fishy odor and high pH. Metronidazole is used to treat it.
The document summarizes several intestinal protozoan parasites that can infect humans. It describes the causal agents, life cycles, transmission routes, clinical features, laboratory diagnosis, and treatment for parasites including Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora cayetanensis, and Balantidium coli. Key details provided on the parasites include their sites of infection in the host, symptoms caused, and diagnostic methods such as acid-fast staining of stool samples.
The document summarizes several intestinal protozoan parasites that can infect humans. It describes the causal agents, life cycles, transmission routes, clinical features, laboratory diagnosis, and treatment for parasites including Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora cayetanensis, and Balantidium coli. Key details provided on each parasite include their geographic distribution, sites of infection within the host, symptoms caused, and diagnostic microscopic stages observed in stool samples.
This document provides a classification and overview of intestinal protozoa including Entamoeba, Giardia, Dientamoeba, Trichomonas, and Balantidium. It describes the morphology, life cycles, pathogenicity and clinical manifestations of Entamoeba histolytica, the causative agent of amebiasis. Laboratory diagnosis and treatment options for intestinal amebiasis and extraintestinal complications like hepatic amebiasis are also summarized. The document briefly mentions other non-pathogenic intestinal amoebae including Entamoeba coli, Entamoeba dispar, Entamoeba hartmanni, Entamoeba gingivalis, Endolimax n
1. Entamoeba histolytica is one of the most important pathogenic protozoa that infects humans. It causes amebiasis through the transmission of infective cysts from feces to mouth via contaminated food or water.
2. The life cycle involves cyst ingestion, excystation in the small intestine, colonization of the large intestine by trophozoites, and formation of cysts that are passed in feces. Trophozoites can invade the intestinal lining and spread to other organs.
3. Symptoms range from mild abdominal discomfort to severe dysentery. Most infections are asymptomatic but some can cause life-threatening extra-intestinal complications like liver abscesses if left untreated
This document summarizes various pathogens including fungi, protozoa, and helminths that cause disease in humans. It outlines the causative organism, symptoms and disease manifestations, methods of diagnosis, and common treatments for each group. Key pathogens covered include Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Pneumocystis jiroveci, Plasmodium falciparum, Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, Toxoplasma gondii, Schistosoma mansoni, Taenia solium, and Echinococcus granulosus. Diagnostic approaches involve microscopy, culture, antigen detection, serology, and imaging tests. Common anti
This document summarizes information about the amoeba Entamoeba histolytica, including its life cycle, pathogenesis, and methods of diagnosis. It describes two stages - the trophozoite stage, which is invasive and feeds on red blood cells, and the cyst stage, which is the infective form passed in feces. Transmission occurs when mature cysts from contaminated food/water are ingested. In the small intestine, trophozoites are released from cysts and can invade the intestinal mucosa, causing amebic dysentery, or spread to other organs like the liver via the bloodstream. Diagnosis involves microscopy of stool samples to look for trophozoites and cysts or serological tests
This document summarizes information about various intestinal flagellates and ciliates that can infect humans. It discusses the taxonomy, morphology, life cycles, transmission routes, pathogenesis and treatment of several important species, including Giardia lamblia, Chilomastix mesnili, Trichomonas species, Balantidium coli, and Ichthyopthirius multifiliis. Key points covered include the stages, structures and habitats of these parasites as well as how they are transmitted and can cause disease in humans or other hosts.
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that infects humans and other warm-blooded animals. It is transmitted through undercooked meat or contact with cat feces. Most infections are asymptomatic, but it can cause severe issues in pregnant women and immunocompromised individuals. Trichomonas vaginalis is a sexually transmitted protozoan parasite that causes the most common vaginal infection worldwide. It is transmitted through sexual contact and can cause symptoms of itching, discharge and irritation. Diagnosis is made through microscopic examination of samples and treatment involves antibiotics.
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite with three morphological forms - tachyzoite, bradyzoite, and oocyst. It can infect humans through undercooked meat, contact with cat feces, or mother-to-child transmission. Clinical manifestations depend on immune status. Diagnosis involves serology, PCR, and imaging. Treatment includes pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine for congenital or AIDS-related toxoplasmosis. Prevention involves hygienic meat handling and contact with cats.
This document summarizes key information about parasitic diseases including leishmaniasis, amoebiasis, and giardiasis. It describes the causative agents, modes of transmission, clinical features, diagnosis, and management of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis. It also outlines the life cycle of Leishmania donovani and clinical manifestations of amoebic liver abscess. Regarding amoebiasis, it highlights that Entamoeba histolytica causes asymptomatic or symptomatic infections via the fecal-oral route. For giardiasis, it notes that Giardia lamblia causes a diarrheal infection of the small intestine transmitted person-to-person.
LUMEN DWELLING FLAGELLATES - GIARDIA
REFS:
INTERNATIONALLY ACCEPTED BOOK OF MEDICAL PARASITOLOGY BY K. D. CHATTERJEE
TEXT BOOK OF MEDICAL PARASITOLOGY BY PANIKER
IMAGE SOURCES : FROM INTERNET
Helmentic infections can be caused by roundworms, tapeworms, and flukes. Roundworm infections include enterobius vermicularis (pinworm), ascariasis (roundworm), trichuriasis (whipworm), and hookworm. Tapeworm infections include taeniasis caused by Taenia saginata and Taenia solium. Fluke infections include schistosomiasis caused by several Schistosoma species. Symptoms vary depending on the parasite but can include abdominal pain, diarrhea, blood in urine or stool, and malnutrition. Diagnosis involves examining stool or biopsy samples microscopically for parasite eggs. Treatment involves antiparasitic medications.
This document discusses Entamoeba histolytica, a pathogenic species of amoeba that causes amebiasis in humans. It exists in two forms, the trophozoite which is the actively feeding stage, and the cyst, which is the dormant resistant stage. Transmission occurs when contaminated food or water is consumed, containing the cyst form which can survive outside the body. The trophozoites colonize the large intestine where they can invade the mucosa and cause intestinal lesions or abscesses. Diagnosis involves examining stool samples microscopically for the presence of motile trophozoites or cysts. Treatment involves medications like metronidazole which act against the amoeba at both intestinal
This document summarizes four intestinal parasites: Entamoeba histolytica, Balantidium coli, Trichomonas vaginalis, and Giardia lamblia. It describes their classification, transmission, sites of infection, clinical manifestations, and laboratory diagnosis. Entamoeba histolytica can cause intestinal or extra-intestinal amoebiasis by forming ulcers in the intestine or other organs. Balantidium coli causes colitis and other infections of the large intestine. Trichomonas vaginalis causes vaginitis or urethritis through sexual contact. Giardia lamblia causes giardiasis through a fecal-oral route and leads to diarrhea and malabsorption.
Amoebiasis is caused by the intestinal protozoan Entamoeba histolytica. Most infections are asymptomatic, but 10% can cause a spectrum of clinical syndromes ranging from asymptomatic to dysentery to liver and other organ abscesses. Transmission occurs through the fecal-oral route via contaminated food, water, or direct person-to-person contact. Diagnosis involves microscopic identification of trophozoites in stool or abscess samples and serologic detection of antibodies. Treatment depends on the infection site and involves luminal amoebicides for intestinal infection and tissue amoebicides like metronidazole for extra-intestinal infections such as liver abscesses.
Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite that causes amoebiasis through fecal-oral transmission. It has a lifecycle involving an infective cyst stage and pathogenic trophozoite stage. Trophozoites cause intestinal and extra-intestinal disease through virulence factors like cysteine proteases. Symptoms range from mild diarrhea to severe colitis, liver abscesses, or other extra-intestinal complications. Diagnosis involves microscopy, antigen detection in stool, or serology. Treatment involves luminal agents like diloxanide furoate or tissue agents like metronidazole. Prevention relies on proper hygiene and sanitation practices.
This document provides information on Treponema pallidum, the spirochete bacterium that causes syphilis. It discusses the morphology, cultivation, antigenic structure, and pathogenesis of T. pallidum. It also describes the stages of syphilis infection including primary, secondary, and tertiary syphilis. The document concludes with an overview of laboratory diagnosis of syphilis including microscopy, staining techniques, and various serological tests.
This document contains 20 multiple choice questions about protozoan parasites and sporozoans. The questions cover topics like the infective stages of different parasites, diagnostic tests, treatment options, transmission methods, and scientific names. The final bonus question asks for the full name of the student's parasitology teacher.
This document summarizes various intestinal and tissue parasites that can infect humans through contaminated food or water. It describes the clinical presentations, locations of infection, and histopathological findings for parasites such as Giardia lamblia, Strongyloides stercoralis, hookworm, Trichuris trichura, Cryptosporidium, Enterobius vermicularis, Entamoeba histolytica, Anisakis, Trichinella spiralis, Dracunculus medinensis, Schistosoma species, Echinococcus granulosus, Taenia saginata, cysticercosis, and filarial worms. Definitive diagnosis of many parasitic infections requires identification of eggs,
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that infects humans and causes toxoplasmosis. It has three infectious stages - tachyzoites that actively multiply, tissue cysts containing bradyzoites, and oocysts found in cat feces. Most infections are asymptomatic, but it can cause severe disease in immunocompromised individuals or congenital infection if a woman is infected during pregnancy. Diagnosis involves microscopy, animal inoculation, serology including the Sabin-Feldman dye test, and molecular methods like PCR. Treatment involves pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine. Pregnant women should avoid contact with cat feces and undercooked meat to prevent infection.
Trypanosoma cruzi causes Chagas disease, which is transmitted to humans through the bite of triatomine bugs in Central and South America. The parasite has both intracellular amastigote and extracellular trypomastigote stages in its life cycle between mammalian and insect hosts. Clinical manifestations range from acute to chronic cardiac and gastrointestinal involvement. Diagnosis involves identifying the parasite microscopically or through serological tests. Treatment options include nifurtimox and benznidazole.
This document provides an overview of amoebiasis (Entamoeba histolytica infection). It discusses the definition, life cycle, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment of intestinal amoebiasis as well as extra-intestinal infections such as amoebic liver abscess. Key points include that 90% of E. histolytica infections are asymptomatic but 10% can cause intestinal or extraintestinal disease ranging from dysentery to liver abscesses. Diagnosis involves microscopy of stool, biopsy or abscess aspirate samples. Treatment depends on the clinical presentation and involves metronidazole and other drugs.
This document discusses parasitology and the diagnosis of parasitic infections through fecal examination. It describes the different types of parasitic relationships and how common some parasitic infections are worldwide. The document outlines the proper procedures for collecting, transporting, examining through wet mount microscopy, and diagnosing parasites in fecal samples. These include using saline, iodine, and buffered methylene blue wet mounts to identify eggs, larvae, trophozoites, and cysts under the microscope. Thorough microscopic examination of concentrated fecal samples is necessary to reliably detect parasites.
This document provides an overview of Entamoeba histolytica, including its history, structure, transmission, pathology, diagnosis, and treatment. E. histolytica is a parasitic protozoan that infects the human colon and causes acute diarrhea and dysentery. It has two stages - the active trophozoite stage that causes infection, and the transmissive cyst stage. The cysts are ingested and excyst in the gut, releasing trophozoites that colonize the colon and cause tissue destruction through enzymatic lysis of epithelial cells. Diagnosis involves microscopic examination of stool samples for trophozoites or cysts. Treatment depends on the site of infection but generally involves nitroimidazole derivatives for intestinal
This document summarizes key concepts in immunology, including the three lines of defense against pathogens, primary and secondary immune organs, lymphocytes and immunity types, immunologic disorders, antibodies, and common immunologic problems. It covers cellular and humoral immunity, the immune response process, and immunologic terminology.
This document discusses microbial control through various sterilization and disinfection methods including physical agents like heat, radiation, and filtration as well as chemical agents like phenols, alcohols, and antibiotics. It covers topics such as bacteriostatic vs bactericidal effects, modes of microbial transmission, and biological vectors of infection.
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that infects humans and other warm-blooded animals. It is transmitted through undercooked meat or contact with cat feces. Most infections are asymptomatic, but it can cause severe issues in pregnant women and immunocompromised individuals. Trichomonas vaginalis is a sexually transmitted protozoan parasite that causes the most common vaginal infection worldwide. It is transmitted through sexual contact and can cause symptoms of itching, discharge and irritation. Diagnosis is made through microscopic examination of samples and treatment involves antibiotics.
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite with three morphological forms - tachyzoite, bradyzoite, and oocyst. It can infect humans through undercooked meat, contact with cat feces, or mother-to-child transmission. Clinical manifestations depend on immune status. Diagnosis involves serology, PCR, and imaging. Treatment includes pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine for congenital or AIDS-related toxoplasmosis. Prevention involves hygienic meat handling and contact with cats.
This document summarizes key information about parasitic diseases including leishmaniasis, amoebiasis, and giardiasis. It describes the causative agents, modes of transmission, clinical features, diagnosis, and management of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis. It also outlines the life cycle of Leishmania donovani and clinical manifestations of amoebic liver abscess. Regarding amoebiasis, it highlights that Entamoeba histolytica causes asymptomatic or symptomatic infections via the fecal-oral route. For giardiasis, it notes that Giardia lamblia causes a diarrheal infection of the small intestine transmitted person-to-person.
LUMEN DWELLING FLAGELLATES - GIARDIA
REFS:
INTERNATIONALLY ACCEPTED BOOK OF MEDICAL PARASITOLOGY BY K. D. CHATTERJEE
TEXT BOOK OF MEDICAL PARASITOLOGY BY PANIKER
IMAGE SOURCES : FROM INTERNET
Helmentic infections can be caused by roundworms, tapeworms, and flukes. Roundworm infections include enterobius vermicularis (pinworm), ascariasis (roundworm), trichuriasis (whipworm), and hookworm. Tapeworm infections include taeniasis caused by Taenia saginata and Taenia solium. Fluke infections include schistosomiasis caused by several Schistosoma species. Symptoms vary depending on the parasite but can include abdominal pain, diarrhea, blood in urine or stool, and malnutrition. Diagnosis involves examining stool or biopsy samples microscopically for parasite eggs. Treatment involves antiparasitic medications.
This document discusses Entamoeba histolytica, a pathogenic species of amoeba that causes amebiasis in humans. It exists in two forms, the trophozoite which is the actively feeding stage, and the cyst, which is the dormant resistant stage. Transmission occurs when contaminated food or water is consumed, containing the cyst form which can survive outside the body. The trophozoites colonize the large intestine where they can invade the mucosa and cause intestinal lesions or abscesses. Diagnosis involves examining stool samples microscopically for the presence of motile trophozoites or cysts. Treatment involves medications like metronidazole which act against the amoeba at both intestinal
This document summarizes four intestinal parasites: Entamoeba histolytica, Balantidium coli, Trichomonas vaginalis, and Giardia lamblia. It describes their classification, transmission, sites of infection, clinical manifestations, and laboratory diagnosis. Entamoeba histolytica can cause intestinal or extra-intestinal amoebiasis by forming ulcers in the intestine or other organs. Balantidium coli causes colitis and other infections of the large intestine. Trichomonas vaginalis causes vaginitis or urethritis through sexual contact. Giardia lamblia causes giardiasis through a fecal-oral route and leads to diarrhea and malabsorption.
Amoebiasis is caused by the intestinal protozoan Entamoeba histolytica. Most infections are asymptomatic, but 10% can cause a spectrum of clinical syndromes ranging from asymptomatic to dysentery to liver and other organ abscesses. Transmission occurs through the fecal-oral route via contaminated food, water, or direct person-to-person contact. Diagnosis involves microscopic identification of trophozoites in stool or abscess samples and serologic detection of antibodies. Treatment depends on the infection site and involves luminal amoebicides for intestinal infection and tissue amoebicides like metronidazole for extra-intestinal infections such as liver abscesses.
Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite that causes amoebiasis through fecal-oral transmission. It has a lifecycle involving an infective cyst stage and pathogenic trophozoite stage. Trophozoites cause intestinal and extra-intestinal disease through virulence factors like cysteine proteases. Symptoms range from mild diarrhea to severe colitis, liver abscesses, or other extra-intestinal complications. Diagnosis involves microscopy, antigen detection in stool, or serology. Treatment involves luminal agents like diloxanide furoate or tissue agents like metronidazole. Prevention relies on proper hygiene and sanitation practices.
This document provides information on Treponema pallidum, the spirochete bacterium that causes syphilis. It discusses the morphology, cultivation, antigenic structure, and pathogenesis of T. pallidum. It also describes the stages of syphilis infection including primary, secondary, and tertiary syphilis. The document concludes with an overview of laboratory diagnosis of syphilis including microscopy, staining techniques, and various serological tests.
This document contains 20 multiple choice questions about protozoan parasites and sporozoans. The questions cover topics like the infective stages of different parasites, diagnostic tests, treatment options, transmission methods, and scientific names. The final bonus question asks for the full name of the student's parasitology teacher.
This document summarizes various intestinal and tissue parasites that can infect humans through contaminated food or water. It describes the clinical presentations, locations of infection, and histopathological findings for parasites such as Giardia lamblia, Strongyloides stercoralis, hookworm, Trichuris trichura, Cryptosporidium, Enterobius vermicularis, Entamoeba histolytica, Anisakis, Trichinella spiralis, Dracunculus medinensis, Schistosoma species, Echinococcus granulosus, Taenia saginata, cysticercosis, and filarial worms. Definitive diagnosis of many parasitic infections requires identification of eggs,
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that infects humans and causes toxoplasmosis. It has three infectious stages - tachyzoites that actively multiply, tissue cysts containing bradyzoites, and oocysts found in cat feces. Most infections are asymptomatic, but it can cause severe disease in immunocompromised individuals or congenital infection if a woman is infected during pregnancy. Diagnosis involves microscopy, animal inoculation, serology including the Sabin-Feldman dye test, and molecular methods like PCR. Treatment involves pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine. Pregnant women should avoid contact with cat feces and undercooked meat to prevent infection.
Trypanosoma cruzi causes Chagas disease, which is transmitted to humans through the bite of triatomine bugs in Central and South America. The parasite has both intracellular amastigote and extracellular trypomastigote stages in its life cycle between mammalian and insect hosts. Clinical manifestations range from acute to chronic cardiac and gastrointestinal involvement. Diagnosis involves identifying the parasite microscopically or through serological tests. Treatment options include nifurtimox and benznidazole.
This document provides an overview of amoebiasis (Entamoeba histolytica infection). It discusses the definition, life cycle, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment of intestinal amoebiasis as well as extra-intestinal infections such as amoebic liver abscess. Key points include that 90% of E. histolytica infections are asymptomatic but 10% can cause intestinal or extraintestinal disease ranging from dysentery to liver abscesses. Diagnosis involves microscopy of stool, biopsy or abscess aspirate samples. Treatment depends on the clinical presentation and involves metronidazole and other drugs.
This document discusses parasitology and the diagnosis of parasitic infections through fecal examination. It describes the different types of parasitic relationships and how common some parasitic infections are worldwide. The document outlines the proper procedures for collecting, transporting, examining through wet mount microscopy, and diagnosing parasites in fecal samples. These include using saline, iodine, and buffered methylene blue wet mounts to identify eggs, larvae, trophozoites, and cysts under the microscope. Thorough microscopic examination of concentrated fecal samples is necessary to reliably detect parasites.
This document provides an overview of Entamoeba histolytica, including its history, structure, transmission, pathology, diagnosis, and treatment. E. histolytica is a parasitic protozoan that infects the human colon and causes acute diarrhea and dysentery. It has two stages - the active trophozoite stage that causes infection, and the transmissive cyst stage. The cysts are ingested and excyst in the gut, releasing trophozoites that colonize the colon and cause tissue destruction through enzymatic lysis of epithelial cells. Diagnosis involves microscopic examination of stool samples for trophozoites or cysts. Treatment depends on the site of infection but generally involves nitroimidazole derivatives for intestinal
This document summarizes key concepts in immunology, including the three lines of defense against pathogens, primary and secondary immune organs, lymphocytes and immunity types, immunologic disorders, antibodies, and common immunologic problems. It covers cellular and humoral immunity, the immune response process, and immunologic terminology.
This document discusses microbial control through various sterilization and disinfection methods including physical agents like heat, radiation, and filtration as well as chemical agents like phenols, alcohols, and antibiotics. It covers topics such as bacteriostatic vs bactericidal effects, modes of microbial transmission, and biological vectors of infection.
The document discusses several genera of bacteria that are morphologically similar as they are all motile microorganisms with helical or spiral shapes. It focuses on Spirochetes including Treponema pallidum, the causative agent of syphilis, Borrelia which causes relapsing fever, and Leptospira that can cause leptospirosis. It also briefly covers Mycoplasma, Rickettsia, Chlamydia and their roles in various infectious diseases.
This document provides information on viruses including their structure, classification, life cycle, and diseases they cause. It defines key terms like capsids, genomes, and envelopes. It describes the four main types of viral structures and how viruses are classified based on attributes like morphology, genome, and host. Common animal viruses are outlined including families like Adenoviridae, Flaviviridae, and Picornaviridae. Public health issues like influenza, SARS, Ebola, and dengue are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of general microbiology as a 3-unit subject for dental students. It discusses the history of microbiology, including key figures such as Fracastorius, Leeuwenhoek, Pasteur, Lister, and Koch. It also summarizes the development of microscopy, the spontaneous generation controversy, and proofs that microbes cause disease. Finally, it briefly outlines the divisions, applications, and career opportunities within the field of microbiology.
This document discusses chemical carcinogenesis and the initiation and promotion stages. Initiation results from exposure to a carcinogenic agent and causes permanent DNA damage (mutations). Promotion alone cannot cause tumors, but can induce tumors in initiated cells by causing proliferation and clonal expansion of initiated cells. The document also discusses various carcinogens like radiation, viruses, and bacteria that can cause cancer through direct DNA damage or indirect mechanisms like chronic inflammation. It also summarizes tumor immunity, how tumors evade the immune system, and some clinical aspects of cancer like paraneoplastic syndromes and cachexia.
This document discusses carcinogenesis and the molecular basis of tumor development. It covers several theories of carcinogenesis, including genetic damage to oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, genes regulating apoptosis, and DNA repair genes. It also discusses various carcinogenic agents and the multi-step process of carcinogenesis, including initiation, promotion, and progression. Finally, it provides examples of different types of neoplasms and tumors, along with their characteristics.
This document provides an overview of neoplasia (abnormal tissue growth) including definitions, classifications, characteristics of benign and malignant tumors, and methods of tumor diagnosis and analysis. It discusses the differences between benign and malignant tumors, how tumors are named and graded, common routes of cancer spread, and uses histopathology to analyze biopsied tumor samples.
The document discusses neoplasia (abnormal growths) and cancer biology. It provides definitions of key terms like neoplasia, benign and malignant tumors. It describes factors involved in carcinogenesis like oncogenes, growth factors and tumor suppressor genes. It also summarizes cancer features including differentiation, growth rate, invasion, metastasis and staging/grading systems. Overall, the document provides a comprehensive overview of the pathogenesis and classification of neoplasms.
Gastroenteritis refers to inflammation of the stomach and intestines that commonly causes diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. It is usually caused by infectious agents like viruses, bacteria, or parasites that damage the intestinal lining. The main goals of treatment are rehydration and electrolyte replacement to prevent dehydration. Specific infectious causes discussed in the document include norovirus, rotavirus, salmonella, shigella, E. coli O157:H7, and Clostridium difficile.
This document discusses various biochemical tests used to identify bacteria. It provides details on tests like indole, methyl red, Voges-Proskauer, and citrate utilization (IMVIC) tests. For each test, it lists the principle, required reagents and media, and positive and negative results. Students are assigned to research additional biochemical tests, tabulating the working principle, reagents, media, and results for each. They are also instructed on proper media preparation and inoculation techniques to perform the tests in class and report their results.
Gram positive cocci include medically important genera such as Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Enterococcus. Staphylococcus aureus can cause skin infections, food poisoning, and pneumonia. Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Strep) is a pathogen associated with pharyngitis, scarlet fever, and rheumatic fever. Streptococcus agalactiae commonly causes neonatal meningitis. Viridans streptococci are oral commensals occasionally linked to endocarditis.
- Oral bacteria play an important role in both health and disease. The oral cavity contains over 700 bacterial species that form complex biofilm communities on teeth and in other areas.
- Certain bacteria like Streptococcus mutans and lactobacilli are associated with dental caries due to their ability to produce acid from carbohydrates, tolerate low pH environments, and form biofilms. These cariogenic bacteria were first isolated in the early 1900s.
- While many people harbor cariogenic bacteria, not everyone develops caries. The ecological plaque hypothesis suggests that caries results from an environmental shift, like frequent sugar intake, that upsets the balance between pathogenic and commensal oral bacteria.
This document discusses the nutritional and environmental requirements for bacterial growth, including the need for carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other elements. It describes different types of culture media like liquid broth, semi-solid agar, and solid agar plates and how they are used. The document also covers bacterial colony morphology, describing smooth, mucoid, and rough colony types. It discusses factors that provide a suitable growth environment for bacteria, such as oxygen levels, temperature, pH, and osmotic pressure requirements.
This document discusses the nutritional and environmental requirements for bacterial growth, including the need for carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other elements. It describes different types of culture media like liquid broth, semi-solid agar, and solid agar plates and how they are used. The document also covers bacterial colony morphology, describing smooth, mucoid, and rough colony types. Various growth conditions that bacteria require like temperature, oxygen levels, pH, and osmotic pressure are also summarized.
1) Fungi include yeasts, molds, and slime molds and are classified based on their morphology and cellular structure.
2) Fungi obtain nutrients through heterotrophic nutrition and can reproduce both sexually through specialized sex organs and asexually through spores, budding, or fission.
3) Important fungi include Saccharomyces cerevisiae used in brewing and baking, Penicillium species that produce antibiotics and cheeses, and edible mushrooms and truffles.
Coccobacilli is a transitional shape between coccus and bacillus. It has the shape of short rods or ovals.
Bacillus do not form tetrads or clusters because their shape does not allow them to arrange in those patterns like cocci can. As individual rods, bacillus cannot cluster in the same symmetrical ways as cocci.
General pathology lecture 4 cellular adaptationviancksislove
Cellular adaptations can occur in response to stress through hyperplasia, hypertrophy, atrophy, or metaplasia. Hyperplasia involves an increase in cell number through cell proliferation. Hypertrophy is an enlargement of existing cells without cell division. Atrophy is a decrease in cell size and number. Metaplasia is the replacement of one adult cell type with another through reprogramming of stem or mesenchymal cells. These adaptations allow tissues and organs to respond to changes in workload, stimulation levels, injury, or other stresses.
This document provides taxonomic classifications and descriptions of various gram-positive and gram-negative bacilli. It covers characteristics of Bacillus, Clostridium, Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium, Lactobacillus, Erysipelothrix, Listeria, and several enteric bacteria including Salmonella, Shigella, Escherichia, Klebsiella, and Proteus. It describes their morphology, staining properties, culture characteristics, pathogenicity and diseases associated with each genus.
General pathology lecture 5 inflammation & repairZa Flores
The document discusses various aspects of inflammation and repair. It describes the signs of acute inflammation as redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function. It then covers the events in acute inflammation, including neurologic events like vasoconstriction and vasodilation, hemodynamic events such as increased permeability and slowing of blood flow, and cellular events like margination and emigration of leukocytes. Chronic inflammation and types of inflammation based on location and exudates are also summarized. The document concludes by discussing repair through granulation tissue formation, remodeling and fibrosis.
The document discusses various types of helminthic infections including roundworms, tapeworms, and flukes. It describes the life cycles, clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment of different species of intestinal nematodes, cestodes, and trematodes. Key helminths mentioned are Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichura, hookworms, Taenia saginata, Taenia solium, Echinococcus granulosus, Schistosoma mansoni, and Schistosoma hematobium. Treatment involves anthelmintic drugs while prevention focuses on improved sanitation, hygiene, and health education.
This document discusses the clinical presentation, laboratory diagnosis, and most common pathogens involved in parasitology. It describes the symptoms, life cycles, microscopic appearance, and diagnostic methods for protozoan parasites commonly found in stool, blood, and tissues. These include Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium, and Trypanosoma among others.
Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted via the bites of infected Anopheles mosquitoes. The parasites multiply within red blood cells, causing symptoms like fever and flu-like illness in cycles of 48-72 hours. It is a major global health problem in tropical and subtropical regions, causing over 2.7 million deaths per year. Treatment involves antimalarial drugs, while control relies on preventing mosquito bites through measures like indoor spraying, mosquito nets, and reducing mosquito breeding sites.
Veterinary important Protozoans with important informationAmanUllahOve
This document summarizes important protozoan and rickettsial species, including their common names, the diseases they cause, definitive and intermediate hosts, locations of infection, and infective stages. It covers a wide range of protozoa that infect humans, livestock, poultry, and other animals, causing diseases such as malaria, babesiosis, toxoplasmosis, and trypanosomiasis. The document provides key details about the pathogenic protozoa and rickettsiae in a comprehensive yet concise manner.
Anthelmintic drugs are used to treat helminth infections. The main classes include benzimidazoles like albendazole and mebendazole, which inhibit microtubule synthesis in worms. Piperazine is only recommended for ascariasis by blocking acetylcholine. Pyrantel pamoate is broad spectrum but not effective against whipworms. Thiabendazole is more toxic than other benzimidazoles and can cause liver failure. Drugs are selected based on the infecting organism and administered orally in single or multiple doses.
The document discusses various sporozoan parasites including Sarcocystis, Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma, Eimeria, Isospora, and Plasmodium species. It provides details on the parasite biology, life cycles, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases caused by these sporozoans. Key points covered include that sporozoans are obligate parasites with complex life cycles involving sexual and asexual reproduction, and they cause diseases by infecting tissues through ingestion of infective stages such as oocysts or sporocysts.
1. The document discusses several types of bacteria including staphylococci, streptococci, bacillus, clostridium, salmonella, E. coli, and brucella. It describes their morphology, species, diseases they cause, habitats, transmission, pathogenesis, culture characteristics, and diagnosis.
2. Key details provided include that staphylococci are round and gram-positive, while streptococci are also round but gram-negative and occur in chains. Bacillus forms spores and includes B. anthracis, while clostridium is anaerobic and rod-shaped. Salmonella causes typhoid fever and food poisoning.
3. The document outlines identification
This document discusses diseases caused by flukes in the bile duct, including clonorchiasis, opisthorchiasis, and fascioliasis. It covers the etiology, life cycles, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of these diseases. Key points include:
- The diseases are caused by parasitic flukes and transmitted through eating raw or undercooked freshwater fish/vegetation containing fluke eggs or larvae.
- Symptoms vary depending on the disease stage but generally include fever, jaundice, liver abnormalities and eosinophilia.
- Diagnosis involves finding fluke eggs in stool or other samples and immunological tests. Imaging can also detect fluke
Strategies Novartis can use to GROW from a Billion Dollar Company to a Trillion Dollar Company like Alphabet Inc
Novartis is a leading healthcare company which is situated in Switzerland and uses digital technologies and innovative science to come up with transformative ways of treatment in areas of great medicinal needs. This article explains what Novartis strategies and what they should employ so that they can rise from a billion dollar company to a trillion dollar company like the Google Alphabet Inc.
Novartis was formed in March 1996 by the merging of pharmaceutical and agrochemical divisions of Ciba-Geigy and Sandoz companies. Thanks to the merging of the two companies, Novartis is one of the biggest pharmaceutical companies in the world. Novartis is one of the largest companies which achieved a great milestone within a few decades. Novartis as a whole is divided into three major divisions: Sandoz (generics), Innovative Medicines and Alcon (eyecare). Novartis is also involved in collaborative research projects that are publicly funded.
Below are some of Novartis best selling drugs and their revenue
1.Cosenty – This is the top selling drug with a revenue of 4.788 billion dollars
2.Enfresto – This has a revenue of 4.644 billions dollars
3.Promacta – This has a revenue 0f 2.088 billion dollars
Medicine manufactured by Novartis and their uses
Medicine Medicine use
Cosentyx Used to treat psoriatic arthritis
Entresto Used to treat heart failure
Lucentis Used to block abnormal vessel growth in the back of the eye
Tasigna Used to treat chronic myelogenous leukemia which has the Philadelphia chromosome
Jakavi Used to treat myelofibrosis, polycythemia vera and graft-versus-host disease
Promacta Used to treat patients with abnormal low platelet count
Sandostatin Used to treat patients with tumor experiencing symptoms like flushing and diarrhea
Xolair Used to treat moderate and severe asthma
Gilenya Used to treat multiple sclerosis
How Novartis became one of the biggest pharmaceutical companies in the world
1.Market control through partnership
Geigy, Sandoz and Ciba combined their power so that they can compete with strong foreign firms and formed a cartel called the Basal Syndicate or Basal IG. Basal IG secured most of the manufacturing facilities all over the US and across Europe. It later joined with IG Farben and other chemical companies to form a big cartel called the Quadrapartite Cartel which dominated all of the European market and enjoyed the profits made from the joint manufacturing.
2.Growth acceleration through mergers
Since competition was very rampant in the pharmaceutical industry, Ciba and Geigy decided to merge with Sandoz AG to form Novartis. With this merge, Novartis became one of the growing giants in the pharmaceutical industry. This made Novartis gain a lot of fame and build a strong reputation over other companies. Novartis majored on agrochemical and pharmaceutical industries which made it easy to focus on a specific mar
This document provides an overview of parasitic infections and their diagnosis. It discusses the most common intestinal protozoa and helminths seen in stool, including Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium, and hookworm. It also covers blood-borne protozoa like Plasmodium, Babesia, Trypanosomes, and Leishmania. Diagnosis is based on microscopic examination of stool, tissue, or blood samples, as well as molecular testing. Symptoms vary by parasite but often include abdominal pain, diarrhea, and fatigue. Travel history and immune status factor into risk of infection.
This document summarizes flagellates, including their classification, morphology, and life cycles. It focuses on Giardia intestinalis and Trichomonas vaginalis. G. intestinalis has trophozoite and cyst stages, with the cyst being infective. It causes giardiasis by damaging the intestinal epithelium. T. vaginalis only exists as a trophozoite and causes trichomoniasis through overgrowth in the vagina when pH increases. Both can be diagnosed via microscopy of stool or vaginal samples and treated with metronidazole or tinidazole.
This document summarizes laboratory diagnosis of parasites. Common specimen types for diagnosis include stool, sputum, urine and tissue. Diagnostic methods include microscopic examination, serology, fluorescent stains and molecular assays. Common parasites that can be diagnosed include protozoa (Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium), helminths (Ascaris lumbricoides, Strongyloides stercoralis), and intestinal pathogens (Blastocystis hominis, Microsporidia). Symptoms, morphology of parasites and life cycles are described to aid in diagnosis.
This document summarizes parasitic infections that can affect immunocompromised hosts. It begins by categorizing different types of parasites like protozoa, trematodes, cestodes, and nematodes. It then explains how parasitic infections can be more severe in immunocompromised individuals due to impaired host defense mechanisms. Specific parasites discussed include Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma gondii, Strongyloides stercoralis, and various malaria-causing Plasmodium species. Images are provided to illustrate different parasite life stages and infections.
Parasitology 2024 | Microbes with MorganMargie Morgan
This document provides an overview of laboratory diagnosis of parasites. It discusses microscopic examination of various specimen types and additional testing methods like serology, fluorescent stains, and molecular assays. Key points about parasitic diarrheal disease and the two-vial stool collection kit are summarized. Numerous protozoan, helminthic, and other parasites are then described in detail, including their life cycles, symptoms of infection, and microscopic appearance of diagnostic stages.
The document discusses various types of symbiotic relationships between organisms, with a focus on parasitism. It defines key terms related to parasites like host, life cycle, and classification. Parasites are divided into protozoans, helminths (worms), and arthropods. Several intestinal protozoan parasites are described in detail, including Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, and Trichomonas vaginalis. Blood and tissue protozoans covered include Plasmodium spp. (which cause malaria), Toxoplasma gondii, Leishmania spp., and trypanosomes. Helminths are categorized as cestodes (tapeworms),
This document provides information on microbiology and parasitology. It discusses microorganisms like bacteria, parasites, fungi and viruses. It also describes different types of parasites including protozoa and helminths. Specifically, it summarizes the life cycle, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of Entamoeba histolytica, which causes amoebiasis. It notes that amoebiasis is common in developing countries where sanitation is poor and transmission occurs through the fecal-oral route by ingesting cysts from contaminated food or water. Stool examination is used to diagnose by identifying trophozoites or cysts of E. histolytica.
This document provides an overview of various protozoan parasites that can infect humans. It discusses the life cycles, infective and pathogenic stages, epidemiology and pathogenesis of intestinal protozoa (Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Balantidium coli, Trichomonas vaginalis), tissue protozoa (Acanthamoeba, Naegleria), and the blood protozoan Leishmania. Key points covered include the clinical manifestations of disease, laboratory diagnosis, treatment and prevention/control measures for these important protozoan infections.
Similar to Module12 parasitology-120620072430-phpapp02 (20)
Discover the benefits of homeopathic medicine for irregular periods with our guide on 5 common remedies. Learn how these natural treatments can help regulate menstrual cycles and improve overall menstrual health.
Visit Us: https://drdeepikashomeopathy.com/service/irregular-periods-treatment/
The biomechanics of running involves the study of the mechanical principles underlying running movements. It includes the analysis of the running gait cycle, which consists of the stance phase (foot contact to push-off) and the swing phase (foot lift-off to next contact). Key aspects include kinematics (joint angles and movements, stride length and frequency) and kinetics (forces involved in running, including ground reaction and muscle forces). Understanding these factors helps in improving running performance, optimizing technique, and preventing injuries.
NAVIGATING THE HORIZONS OF TIME LAPSE EMBRYO MONITORING.pdfRahul Sen
Time-lapse embryo monitoring is an advanced imaging technique used in IVF to continuously observe embryo development. It captures high-resolution images at regular intervals, allowing embryologists to select the most viable embryos for transfer based on detailed growth patterns. This technology enhances embryo selection, potentially increasing pregnancy success rates.
Travel vaccination in Manchester offers comprehensive immunization services for individuals planning international trips. Expert healthcare providers administer vaccines tailored to your destination, ensuring you stay protected against various diseases. Conveniently located clinics and flexible appointment options make it easy to get the necessary shots before your journey. Stay healthy and travel with confidence by getting vaccinated in Manchester. Visit us: www.nxhealthcare.co.uk
Giloy in Ayurveda - Classical Categorization and SynonymsPlanet Ayurveda
Giloy, also known as Guduchi or Amrita in classical Ayurvedic texts, is a revered herb renowned for its myriad health benefits. It is categorized as a Rasayana, meaning it has rejuvenating properties that enhance vitality and longevity. Giloy is celebrated for its ability to boost the immune system, detoxify the body, and promote overall wellness. Its anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and antioxidant properties make it a staple in managing conditions like fever, diabetes, and stress. The versatility and efficacy of Giloy in supporting health naturally highlight its importance in Ayurveda. At Planet Ayurveda, we provide a comprehensive range of health services and 100% herbal supplements that harness the power of natural ingredients like Giloy. Our products are globally available and affordable, ensuring that everyone can benefit from the ancient wisdom of Ayurveda. If you or your loved ones are dealing with health issues, contact Planet Ayurveda at 01725214040 to book an online video consultation with our professional doctors. Let us help you achieve optimal health and wellness naturally.
Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/Pt1nA32sdHQ
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/uFdc9F0rlP0
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
Summer is a time for fun in the sun, but the heat and humidity can also wreak havoc on your skin. From itchy rashes to unwanted pigmentation, several skin conditions become more prevalent during these warmer months.
Breast cancer: Post menopausal endocrine therapyDr. Sumit KUMAR
Breast cancer in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive (HR+) status is a common and complex condition that necessitates a multifaceted approach to management. HR+ breast cancer means that the cancer cells grow in response to hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. This subtype is prevalent among postmenopausal women and typically exhibits a more indolent course compared to other forms of breast cancer, which allows for a variety of treatment options.
Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is generally reserved for patients with high-risk features, such as large tumor size, high-grade histology, or extensive lymph node involvement. Regimens often include anthracyclines and taxanes.
STUDIES IN SUPPORT OF SPECIAL POPULATIONS: GERIATRICS E7shruti jagirdar
Unit 4: MRA 103T Regulatory affairs
This guideline is directed principally toward new Molecular Entities that are
likely to have significant use in the elderly, either because the disease intended
to be treated is characteristically a disease of aging ( e.g., Alzheimer's disease) or
because the population to be treated is known to include substantial numbers of
geriatric patients (e.g., hypertension).
PGx Analysis in VarSeq: A User’s PerspectiveGolden Helix
Since our release of the PGx capabilities in VarSeq, we’ve had a few months to gather some insights from various use cases. Some users approach PGx workflows by means of array genotyping or what seems to be a growing trend of adding the star allele calling to the existing NGS pipeline for whole genome data. Luckily, both approaches are supported with the VarSeq software platform. The genotyping method being used will also dictate what the scope of the tertiary analysis will be. For example, are your PGx reports a standalone pipeline or would your lab’s goal be to handle a dual-purpose workflow and report on PGx + Diagnostic findings.
The purpose of this webcast is to:
Discuss and demonstrate the approaches with array and NGS genotyping methods for star allele calling to prep for downstream analysis.
Following genotyping, explore alternative tertiary workflow concepts in VarSeq to handle PGx reporting.
Moreover, we will include insights users will need to consider when validating their PGx workflow for all possible star alleles and options you have for automating your PGx analysis for large number of samples. Please join us for a session dedicated to the application of star allele genotyping and subsequent PGx workflows in our VarSeq software.
2. Protozoa
Are single celled animals
Trophozoites are motile
Cysts are involved in transmission
3. GENERALITIES:
Parasites are organisms that obtain food and
shelter by living on or within another organism.
The parasite derives all benefits from association
and the host may either not be harmed or may
suffer the consequences of this association, a
parasite disease.
The parasite is termed obligate when it can live
only in association with a host or it is classified
as facultative when it can live both in or on a
host as well as in a free form.
4. Parasites which live inside the body are
termed endoparasites whereas those
which exist on the body surface are called
ectoparasites.
Parasites that cause harm to the host are
pathogenic parasites while those that
benefit from the host without causing it
any harm are known as commensals
5. What needs to be known?
Organism name ( scientific & common)
Morphology (cyst, egg, larva, tophozoite,
adult – M & F )
Etiology
Epidemiology
Life Cycle
Symptoms, Pathology, Immunology
Diagnosis, Treatment & Prevention
6. INTESTINAL AND LUMINAL
PROTOZOA
Organism that harbors the parasite and suffers a
loss caused by the parasite is a host.
The host in which the parasite lives its adult and
sexual stage is the definitive host
The host in which a parasite lives as the larval
and asexual stage is the intermediate host.
Other hosts that harbor the parasite and thus
ensure continuity of the parasite's life cycle and
act as additional sources of human infection are
known as reservoir hosts.
An organism (usually an insect) that is
responsible for transmitting the parasitic
infection is known as the vector.
7. Intestinal and luminal protozoa
significant to human health include
Entamoeba histolytica (Amoebae)
Balantidium coli (Ciliates)
Giardia lamblia and Trichomonas vaginalis
(Flagellates)
Cryptosporidium parvum and Isospora
belli (Sporozoa)
8. Organism Transmission Symptoms Diagnosis Treatment
GI: Iodoquinol or
Dysentery with blood Stool: cysts with 1-4
Metronidazole
Entameba histolytica Oro-fecal and necrotic tissue. nuclei and/or trophs.
Abscess:
Chronic: abscesses Trophs in aspirate.
Metronidazole
Fowl-smelling, bulky Stool: typical old man
Iodoquinol or
Giardia lamblia Oro-fecal diarrhea; blood or giardia troph and/or
Metronidazole.
necrotic tissue rare. cyst.
Dysentery with blood
Oro-fecal; Stool: ciliated trophs Iodoquinol or
Balantidium coli and necrotic tissue
zoonotic but no abscesses.
and/or cysts. Metronidazole.
Cryptosporidium Paromycin
parvum
Oro-fecal Diarrhea Ooocysts in stool
(investigational)
Isospora belli Oro-fecal Giardiasis-like Ooocysts in stool Sulpha drugs
Trichomonas Vaginitis; occasional Flagellate in vaginal Mebendazole; vingar
vaginalis
Sexual urethritis/prostatitis. (or urethral) smear. douche; steroids
9. Entamoeba histolytica
Causes disease of the large intestine –
amoebic dysentery – wherein trophozoites
feed on RBC causing ulcers. Also the liver
and lung abscesses are possible
Naegleria – free-living amoeba in hot
water sources. Causes primary amoebic
meningoencephalitis ( PAM)
Acanthamoeba – free living amoebas
10.
11. AMOEBIASIS (amoebic dysentery,
amoebic hepatitis)
Trophozoite: This form has an ameboid
appearance and is usually 15-30 micrometers in
diameter, although more invasive strains tend to
be larger. The organism has a single nucleus with
a distinctive small central karyosome. The fine
granular endoplasm may contain ingested
erythrocytes. The nuclear chromatin is evenly
distributed along the periphery of the nucleus.
Cyst: Entameba histolytica cysts are spherical,
with a refractile wall; the cytoplasm contains dark
staining chromatoidal bodies and 1 to 4 nuclei
with a central karyosome and evenly distributed
peripheral chromatin
12. Flagellates
Giardia lamblia
- a human parasite of the
gastrointestinal tract. The
organism is spread by direct
contact or through contaminated
food and water.
Giardia spp. are pear-shaped,
with hair-like flagella for motility.
They cause the disease giardiasis
(or lambliasis), an infection of
the small intestine most common
in tropical areas.
Giardia spp. attaches by means
of sucking discs to microvilli in
the human intestine. Abdominal
cramps, swelling, diarrhea and
nausea may occur
13. Balantidium coli
This is a parasite primarily of
cows, pigs and horses. The
organism is a large (100 x 60
micrometer) ciliate with a
macro- and a micro-nucleus .
The infection occurs mostly in
farm workers and other rural
dwellers by ingestion of cysts in
fecal material of farm animals.
Man-to-man transmission is rare
but possible. Metronidazole and
iodoquinol are effective.
14. Trichomonas vaginalis
Trophozoite with undulating membrane
and polar flagella
Presents with fishy-smelling yellow
discharge (guess where)
Males usually asymptomatic
Sexually transmitted
15. Organism Transmission Symptoms Diagnosis Treatment
S. mansoni, skin penetration Dermatitis, abdominal Eggs in stool Praziquantel
pain, bloody stool,
S. japonicum by cercaria
peri-portal fibrosis,
hepato-splenomegaly,
ascites, CNS
Schistosoma skin penetration Dermatitis, urogenital Eggs in urine Praziquantel
cystitis, urethritis and
hematobium by cercaria
bladder carcinoma
Fasciolopsis Metacercaria on Epigastric pain, Eggs in stool Praziquantel,
nausea, diarrhea,
buski water chestnut
edema, ascites
C. sinensis, Cysts in fish Inflammation and Eggs in stool Praziquantel
deformation of bile
O. felinus, or O.
duct, hepatitis, anemia
viverini and edema
Cough (dry / rusty
brown sputum),
Paragonimus
Cyst in crab meat pulmonary pain, Eggs in sputum Praziquantel
westermani pleurisy, tuberculosis-
like
22. Organism Transmission Disease/ Diagnosis Treatment
symptoms
Trypanosoma Tsetse fly. Sleeping Hemoflagellate in Blood stage:
brucei sickness; cardiac blood or lymph Suramin or
failure. node. petamidine
isethionate;
T. cruzi Reduvid (kissing) Chagas disease: Hemoflagellate in CNS:
bug. megacolon, blood or tissue. melarsoperol
cardiac failure. Nifurtimox and
Benzonidazole.
Leishmania Sand fly Visceral leish- Intracellular Pentosam;
donovani maniasis, (macrophages) Pentamidine
granulomatous leishmanial isethionate.
skin lesions. bodies.
L. tropica Sand fly. Cutaneous As for L. As for L.
lesions. donovani. donovani.
L. braziliensis Sand fly Mucocutaneous As for L. As for L.
lesions. donovani. donovani.
25. Organism Transmission Disease/ Diagnosis Treatment
symptoms
Plasmodium Female Malarial Plasmodia in rbc, Quinine
falciparum anopheline paroxysm: chills, typical of the derivatives
P. ovale, mosquito. fever, headache, species involved. Proguanil
P. malariae and P.
nausea cycles. Lariam
vivax
Babesia microti Tick Hemolytic Typical organism None; self
anemia, (Maltese cross) in resolving.
Jaundice and rbc.
fever
Toxoplasma Oral from cat Adult: flu like; Intracellular (in Sulphonamides,
gondii fecal material; congenital: macrophages) pyemethamine,
or meat abortion, tachyzoites. possibly
neonatal spiramycin (non-
blindness and FDA).
neuropathies.
Trimethoprim and
Pneumocystis Pneumocystis in
Cough droplets Pneumonia sulphamethoxazo
jiroveci sputum.
le.
26. Sporozoans
Cryptosporidium parvum – found in
waters, a self limited diarrhea
Plasmodium species cause malaria
Anopheles mosquito as vectors
Complicated life cycle.
P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, P. falciparum
Toxoplasma gondii – reservoir in cats
Human ingest cyst from cats feces or
undercooked meat. Danger in fetus
development
41. Organism Transmission Symptoms Diagnosis Treatment
Epigastric pain, Proglottids or
Tenia saginata Cyst in beef vomiting, eggs in stool or Praziquantel
diarrhea perianal area
Epigastric pain, Proglottids or
Tenia solium Cyst in pork vomiting, eggs in stool or Praziquantel
diarrhea perianal area
Muscle pain and
Roentgenograph
weakness,
T. solium y, anti-
Oro-fecal ocular and Praziquantel
Cysticercosis cysticercal
neurologic
antibody (EIA)
problems
45. Organism Transmission Symptoms Diagnosis Treatment
Abdominal pain,
loss of weight,
Proglottids or
anorexia,
D. latum Cyst in fish eggs in stool or Praziquantel
malnutrition and
perianal area
B12 deficiency
problems
Large cysts
Roentgenograph Surgery,
produce various
y, anti-hydatid formalin
symptoms
E. granulosus Oro-fecal fluid antibody injection and
depending on
(EIA), Casoni drainage,
the location of
skin test Praziquantel
the organism.
Surgery,
E. multiloculoris Oro-fecal As above As above
Albendazole